异化与本真：尤金·奥尼尔戏剧荒诞特征研究
摘要
人的生存状态一直是美国戏剧家尤金·奥尼尔作品关注的焦点。通过描述“世人如斯”"Men being what they are"(奥尼尔语),其戏剧展现了人类生存的荒诞性与斗争性,揭示了生存的本真状态。尽管学术界对于奥尼尔戏剧人物生存状态的研究不胜枚举,然而,直接探讨其生存状态与荒诞主义关联的研究则颇为鲜见。其一,无论美国国内还是国外的研究者们,他们绝大多数倾向于局限在几个奥尼尔剧本中来研究其戏剧与荒诞主义的关联,容易导致的误解就是奥尼尔戏剧的荒诞性仅体现于其创作生涯的几个剧本。其二,不少研究成果即使涉及到荒诞主义的相关命题,结论往往转移到其他方面,抑或没有直接论证荒诞性本身。换言之,就现有学术界研究状况而言,尚无一部全面而深入研究奥尼尔戏剧荒诞性的著作。本论文试图从“异化”与“本真”两个视角研究奥尼尔戏剧中的荒诞特征。
首先,本论文通过比较存在主义与荒诞主义,荒诞主义与奥尼尔戏剧荒诞特征,认为其戏剧荒诞特征与存在主义和荒诞主义一脉相承。在“重复”、“信仰缺失”和“交流障碍”等理论方面,奥尼尔与尼采、海德格尔、萨特和加缪等都有较为相近的理论联系。奥尼尔深受以尼采为代表的存在主义的影响,与荒诞主义大师们如加缪在理论渊源、社会背景、人生观和宗教观等方面亦存在极为相似的特征,尤其是加缪关于西西弗斯神话精神的理论在奥尼尔戏剧人物中得到极为具体的写照。
其次,将奥尼尔戏剧创作分为早、中、晚三个时期,从人与自然,人与他人以及人与自我三个视角,借助尼采,海德格尔,萨特和加缪的理论思想,分析各个创作时期最能体现荒诞特征的剧本,认为这些荒诞特征实质上正是奥尼尔一直致力揭示的本真生存状态——“世人如斯”。奥尼尔戏剧荒诞性在思想方面呈现出以下特点：一方面,人与自然的异化,体现为人的无能为力与绝望；人际关系的异化,表现为信仰缺失和交流障碍；人与自我的异化,体现为无归属感,自我丧失以及循环命运。奥尼尔戏剧人物从人与自然的异化逐步升级为人与自我的异化。另一方面,这些戏剧人物面对生存困境,表现出极强的生存意志。他们为各自本真生存方式而坚持不懈的意志与西西弗斯式斗争精神紧密契合,显现出剧作家本人积极的生存态度。这种生存态度主要体现在三个方面：“他们到底是谁”,“斗争即是成功”,“对死亡的憎恶”。在剧本创作技巧方面,从“重复”,隐形面具,独白,舞台动作,舞台空间等视角,其剧本与以尤内斯库和贝克特为代表的荒诞派戏剧作品遥相呼应,对于现代戏剧艺术的改革具有重要的启示作用。
鉴于此,本论文认为,奥尼尔戏剧荒诞特征并不仅仅体现在几个剧本之中,而是贯穿于剧作家整个创作生涯。著名戏剧理论家马丁·艾斯林(Martin Esslin)在其经典著作《荒诞派戏剧》中显然严重忽略了奥尼尔对于启示荒诞主义戏剧的贡献。本论文主要内容包括以下几个部分：
介绍部分梳理自奥尼尔批评研究以来关于其戏剧中涉及到的荒诞性方面的研究成果。从最早的1934年直到二十一世纪的今天,美国国内外的学者们从分裂的人性,爱与幸福的生存追求,交流障碍,异化,“归属”,“日常化”等命题方面探讨奥尼尔戏剧人物的生存意义。
第一章从“异化”视角对比分析克尔凯郭尔、尼采、海德格尔、萨特和加缪关于人类生存状态的阐述。人类“异化”生存状态主要体现在“重复”,“信仰缺失”和“交流障碍”三个方面。这些“异化”生存特征在奥尼尔戏剧中皆有具体描述。依托尼采和加缪等哲学家的理论,存在主义与荒诞主义在哲学上的传承关系得到阐述。奥尼尔戏剧中的独特荒诞性表明其戏剧思想与存在主义和荒诞主义有着重叠和契合的关系。
第二章从“他们到底是谁”,“斗争即是成功”和“对死亡的憎恶”三个方面探讨人类应当追求的本真生存状态。对比研究奥尼尔与克尔凯郭尔、尼采、海德格尔、萨特和加缪关于本真生存状态的理论论述,认为奥尼尔戏剧表达了积极的生存态度。从“自我追寻”,“自由”,“斗争”,家庭关系,回忆等多重视角,奥尼尔笔下的人物通过西西弗斯式的不屈不挠精神表达了生存的本质意义。
第三章研究早期三个剧本,《渴》(Thirst),《金子》(Gold)和《划十字的地方》(Where the Cross Is Made)。在这些剧本中,人与自然的异化关系在人物的命运中得到充分体现。自然更多地是以一种冷酷的方式来反衬人类生存的极端无望之境地,而且这三个剧本中人物的生存状态存在着一种内在的关联性。
通过描述这些自然的因素,即“生物环境”,奥尼尔剧本展现了人类的异化生存状态。大海,鲨鱼,虚幻的财宝等作为具体的自然意象刻画了这样的一个“生物环境”。从剧本中这些自然意象的安排可以看出,人物与自然总是处于一种对立和异化的状态。自然冷酷无情,无论人类的挣扎是多么的激烈与孤注一掷,他们似乎毫无生存的可能。与此同时,自然界亦充满威胁,身处其中的人类彷如刀俎之肉。面临此种生存困境,奥尼尔笔下的人类既极端绝望亦毫无信仰。然而,即便如此,以卡普莱特船长为代表的早期戏剧人物已经显示出不屈不挠的西西弗斯精神之端倪。奥尼尔自己的早期生活经历正是其剧中人物的真实写照。
第四章重点分析《毛猿》(The Hairy Ape),《奇异的插曲》(Strange Interlude)和《悲悼》(Mourning Becomes Electra)三个剧本。在这三个剧本中,奥尼尔将人物设置在复杂的人际关系中,人与他者的分裂关系得到淋漓尽致的展现。剧中主要人物都纠缠在与他者的交互矛盾和斗争中而难以自拔。而这种人与人之间的不可沟通性正是后来荒诞主义戏剧体现的现代人类生存状态的一个主要特征。
中期剧本大多聚焦于以不可交流性为特征的“人与人之间的交流”。基于萨特的“他人即地狱”的理论,这些戏剧作品刻画了人类是如何成为不可交流性的牺牲品。人类彼此对于生存理念迥异,故而彼此之间亦毫无交流的共同点。此外,人类之间的异化关系以“电话人”为意象代表,象征了人类存在的平庸状态。剧本中心理独白的大量运用也从另外一个侧面反映了人类之间的不可交流性。最终,为了各自的本真生存目标,《毛猿》中的扬克选择了死亡,《奇异的插曲》中的尼娜走向了平庸,而《悲悼》中的拉维尼娅则直面惨淡的人生
第五章探讨晚期三个剧本,《更庄严的大厦》(More Stately Mansions),《送冰的人来了》(The Iceman Cometh)和《日长路远夜深沉》(Long Day's Journey into Night)。在这三部奥尼尔的巅峰之作中,荒诞特征通过人与自身身份的分裂而达到与荒诞派戏剧最契合的境界。剧中的主要人物都在怀疑自身的存在,从而生存的本质得到不确定化。《更庄严的大厦》中萨拉与西蒙归于寂静的农场,那里他们最终悟到了本真的意义；《送冰的人来了》中拉里以哲学家的肃静诠释了何谓平庸,何谓超然。《日长路远夜深沉》则告诉世人本真存在就是自我分裂与融合中的理解,宽容与共存。他们的最终自我选择烘托出了最高境界的奥尼尔戏剧的荒诞性。人为何而存在,如何面对当下,如何找到“本真”的存在状态,诸如此类的命题成为剧中人的永恒梦魇,也成为现当代人的不朽追问。
结论部分试图总结认为,在异化的生存状态中,奥尼尔戏剧人物一直致力于体现人的本真生存状态—“世人如斯”,为各自的生存选择而不停奋争,不委曲求全于当下,不屈服于现实的桎梏,在思想境界上与加缪的西西弗斯斗争精神遥相呼应,从而在本质上传递了一种自由乐观的生存态度。因此,奥尼尔戏剧人物面对生存困境的精神境界表明剧作家本人不是一个悲天悯人的悲观主义者。相反,他通过作品传达了人类在面对生存困境时应当具备的不屈不挠的斗争精神。其次,奥尼尔戏剧不仅在思想层面上与荒诞主义戏剧契合,更在舞台技巧方面启示着荒诞主义戏剧和相关戏剧流派的发展方向。马丁·艾斯林在《荒诞派戏剧》中对于奥尼尔相关贡献的忽视启发我们,奥尼尔戏剧的舞台特征值得我们重视,更是需要将来进一步研究的地方。
Eugene O'Neill's plays are deeply concerned with human existential condition. Based upon his belief "men being what they are", his plays try to show us that human existence is characteristic of absurdity and struggle, which should be an authentic state of life. Despite the fact that there are titanic volumes of studies on O' Neill characters' existential conditions, the direct treatment of human existence and the absurd has been far from enough. First off, both in and out of the United States, most of the scholars focus on two or three O' Neill plays to treat the link between him and the absurd, from which the possible misunderstanding is that O' Neill's absurdity resides in merely several of his plays. Secondly, though not a few of these studies are involved in the aspect of absurdity, their conclusions drawn are frequently based on other issues rather than the research related to the absurd. In other words, as far as the current studies are concerned, there has been no one comprehensive and penetrative research on O'Neill's absurdity based on his whole dramatic career. This dissertation attempts to study the absurdity of O'Neill plays from the perspectives of alienation and authenticity.
First, with the comparisons between Existentialism, the absurd and the absurdity in O'Neill plays, this dissertation argues that O'Neill's absurdity is consistent with Existentialism and the absurd. From the perspectives of "repetition","faithlessness" and "incommunicability", O'Neill is theoretically connected to Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre and Camus. Moreover, O'Neill is deeply influenced by Nietzsche and shares similar theoretical sources, social background, philosophy of life and religious outlook with such absurdists as Camus. His characters' struggle is an echo of Camus's version of the Sisyphean spirit.
Second, in this dissertation, with the theories from Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre and Camus, these plays each are chosen from O'Neill's three creative periods in view of the relationships between man and nature, man and others, man and the self. It is argued that O'Neill's absurdity embodies what he endeavors to reveal,"men being what they are". In terms of dramatic thoughts, his plays are characteristic of alienation. On the one hand, human powerlessness and hopelessness represent man's alienation from nature. Faithlessness and incommunicability symbolize the alienation from others. The sense of not belonging, the loss of the self and cyclic fate denotes man's estrangement from the self. On the other, the characters display strong will power for survival when trapped in the alienated state. Their ways of struggle correspond to the Sisyphean spirit, which is suggestive of the playwright's optimistic treatment of human existence. Such a treatment is presented through "the truth of who they are","his struggle is his success!" and "his hatred of death". In terms of dramatic techniques, from the perspectives of "repetition", masked expressions, thought aside, dramatic action and stage space, O'Neill plays echo what Ionesco and Beckett are engaged in their absurdist plays and inspire the modernity of the world drama at large.
In view of the foregoing statement, this dissertation believes that O'Neill's sense of absurdity consists in not several of his plays, but his whole dramatic career. Martin Esslin in The Theatre of the Absurd apparently takes no notice of O'Neill's contributions to the absurdist plays. This dissertation consists of the following parts:
In the Introduction, those studies on O'Neill's absurdity in different periods of O'Neill criticism are analyzed. From1934through the twenty-first century, scholars have been engaged in O'Neill characters' existential conditions from the duality of personality, the pursuit of love and happiness, incommunicability, alienation,"belonging", everydayness and so on.
Chapter One is devoted to human alienated existence through comparing the thoughts of Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre and Camus. Human alienation chiefly lies in "repetition", faithlessness and incommunicability which are all demonstrated in O'Neill plays. The relationship between Existentialism and the absurd, particularly the philosophical inheritance of the absurd from Existentialism, is discussed. Similarities and differences between them are analyzed in view of the theories chiefly from Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre and Camus. The distinctive absurdist features reflected in O'Neill's dramas are explored in order to demonstrate the overlappings, juxtapositions and differences between him, the existentialists and the major absurdist playwrights.
Chapter Two deals with an authentic existence human beings should struggle for. The authentic existence is composed of "the truth of who they are","his struggle is his success" and "his hatred of death". What's more, the similar views among O'Neill, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Camus and other theorists are tackled so as to demonstrate that O' Neill plays convey the spirit of struggle, faith and optimism. From the persctives of "the true self","freedom","struggle", family relationship, and memory, O' Neill's characters display the indefatigable spirit in their fighting for an authentic way of existence.
Chapter Three is concerned about the alienation between man and nature in the three early sea plays, Thirst, Gold, and Where the Cross Is Made. In these plays, the characters turn out to be totally powerless and hopeless when confronted with an indifferent nature.
It is through delineation of the natural forces,"the biological world of environment", that O'Neill plays convey the alienated human existence."The biological world of environment" is presented through an indifferent and threatening nature with the sea, shark, and an illusory treasure as representatives. From O'Neill's arrangement of these natural images, it can be seen that the relationship between his characters and nature is antagonistic and alienated. The nature is indifferent because there is no possibility of survival, however desperate the characters are in their struggle. The nature is also threatening due to the situation in which the characters are completely powerless. Faced with the frustrating existential condition, human existence is replete with hopelessness and faithlessness. In such hopeless situations, many characters with the Captain Bartlett as a representative have showed signs of the Sisyphean spirit. O'Neill's early life is a reflection of this situation. His wandering experience leaves him nothing but his detestation of the sea.
Chapter Four concentrates on the alienation between man and others in the three plays, The Hairy Ape, Strange Interlude and Mourning Becomes Electra. In this period, O' Neill often situates his characters' sufferings in complicated and hellish communications, in which they are unable to extricate themselves from incommunicability. Such incommunicability is equally what the Theater of the Absurd tries to delineate and stage.
The middle plays are devoted to "the interaction of human beings upon one another" which is characteristic of incommunicability. Based upon the idea "hell is the others", plays in this period indicate that the characters are victims of incommunicability. There is no common ground for them to communicate due to their different understandings of the existential conditions. Their alienated relationships are associated with "a telephone man" image which is a representation of everydayness. Another representation of incommunicability is that the characters are often involved in the thought aside, ignoring each other's speaking.
Chapter Five explores the alienation between man and the self in More Stately Mansions, The Iceman Cometh, Long Day's Journey into Night. Such human alienated state brings closer O' Neill plays to the Theatre of the absurd. Most of the characters are torn between the illusory self and the realistic one, and feel uncertain about where their true identities lie. Issues like the meaningfulness of existence, the right attitude towards current existence and the way to authentic existence keep haunting O'Neill characters as well as human beings in real life. Sara and Simon's return to the farm in More Stately Mansions, Larry's detachment from those outcasts in The Iceman Cometh, and the Tyrones in Long Day's Journey into Night attest to the nature of the authentic existence. Their ultimate choices for either the illusory self or the realistic one largely give expressions to O'Neill's sense of absurdity.
In the conclusion part, it has been tentatively concluded that O'Neill characters in their alienated existence choose to struggle for an authentic way of life,"men being what they are", rather than surrender. In their different approaches to and choices for authenticity, they display what Sisyphus fights with unyieldingness and persistence. Hence, his plays are replete with enthusiasm and passion for survival. O'Neill's treatment of his characters' struggle indicates that he is by no means a pessimist. Rather, his plays help advocate courage and optimism in the existential plight. Not only in terms of thoughts, but also dramatic techniques does O'Neill anticipate the Theatre of the Absurd as well as other related types of drama. Martin Esslin's negligence of O' Neill's contributions enlightens us on the fact that more studies should be made on the relationship between O'Neill stagecraft and the Theatre of The Absurd.
首先,本论文通过比较存在主义与荒诞主义,荒诞主义与奥尼尔戏剧荒诞特征,认为其戏剧荒诞特征与存在主义和荒诞主义一脉相承。在“重复”、“信仰缺失”和“交流障碍”等理论方面,奥尼尔与尼采、海德格尔、萨特和加缪等都有较为相近的理论联系。奥尼尔深受以尼采为代表的存在主义的影响,与荒诞主义大师们如加缪在理论渊源、社会背景、人生观和宗教观等方面亦存在极为相似的特征,尤其是加缪关于西西弗斯神话精神的理论在奥尼尔戏剧人物中得到极为具体的写照。
其次,将奥尼尔戏剧创作分为早、中、晚三个时期,从人与自然,人与他人以及人与自我三个视角,借助尼采,海德格尔,萨特和加缪的理论思想,分析各个创作时期最能体现荒诞特征的剧本,认为这些荒诞特征实质上正是奥尼尔一直致力揭示的本真生存状态——“世人如斯”。奥尼尔戏剧荒诞性在思想方面呈现出以下特点：一方面,人与自然的异化,体现为人的无能为力与绝望；人际关系的异化,表现为信仰缺失和交流障碍；人与自我的异化,体现为无归属感,自我丧失以及循环命运。奥尼尔戏剧人物从人与自然的异化逐步升级为人与自我的异化。另一方面,这些戏剧人物面对生存困境,表现出极强的生存意志。他们为各自本真生存方式而坚持不懈的意志与西西弗斯式斗争精神紧密契合,显现出剧作家本人积极的生存态度。这种生存态度主要体现在三个方面：“他们到底是谁”,“斗争即是成功”,“对死亡的憎恶”。在剧本创作技巧方面,从“重复”,隐形面具,独白,舞台动作,舞台空间等视角,其剧本与以尤内斯库和贝克特为代表的荒诞派戏剧作品遥相呼应,对于现代戏剧艺术的改革具有重要的启示作用。
鉴于此,本论文认为,奥尼尔戏剧荒诞特征并不仅仅体现在几个剧本之中,而是贯穿于剧作家整个创作生涯。著名戏剧理论家马丁·艾斯林(Martin Esslin)在其经典著作《荒诞派戏剧》中显然严重忽略了奥尼尔对于启示荒诞主义戏剧的贡献。本论文主要内容包括以下几个部分：
介绍部分梳理自奥尼尔批评研究以来关于其戏剧中涉及到的荒诞性方面的研究成果。从最早的1934年直到二十一世纪的今天,美国国内外的学者们从分裂的人性,爱与幸福的生存追求,交流障碍,异化,“归属”,“日常化”等命题方面探讨奥尼尔戏剧人物的生存意义。
第一章从“异化”视角对比分析克尔凯郭尔、尼采、海德格尔、萨特和加缪关于人类生存状态的阐述。人类“异化”生存状态主要体现在“重复”,“信仰缺失”和“交流障碍”三个方面。这些“异化”生存特征在奥尼尔戏剧中皆有具体描述。依托尼采和加缪等哲学家的理论,存在主义与荒诞主义在哲学上的传承关系得到阐述。奥尼尔戏剧中的独特荒诞性表明其戏剧思想与存在主义和荒诞主义有着重叠和契合的关系。
第二章从“他们到底是谁”,“斗争即是成功”和“对死亡的憎恶”三个方面探讨人类应当追求的本真生存状态。对比研究奥尼尔与克尔凯郭尔、尼采、海德格尔、萨特和加缪关于本真生存状态的理论论述,认为奥尼尔戏剧表达了积极的生存态度。从“自我追寻”,“自由”,“斗争”,家庭关系,回忆等多重视角,奥尼尔笔下的人物通过西西弗斯式的不屈不挠精神表达了生存的本质意义。
第三章研究早期三个剧本,《渴》(Thirst),《金子》(Gold)和《划十字的地方》(Where the Cross Is Made)。在这些剧本中,人与自然的异化关系在人物的命运中得到充分体现。自然更多地是以一种冷酷的方式来反衬人类生存的极端无望之境地,而且这三个剧本中人物的生存状态存在着一种内在的关联性。
通过描述这些自然的因素,即“生物环境”,奥尼尔剧本展现了人类的异化生存状态。大海,鲨鱼,虚幻的财宝等作为具体的自然意象刻画了这样的一个“生物环境”。从剧本中这些自然意象的安排可以看出,人物与自然总是处于一种对立和异化的状态。自然冷酷无情,无论人类的挣扎是多么的激烈与孤注一掷,他们似乎毫无生存的可能。与此同时,自然界亦充满威胁,身处其中的人类彷如刀俎之肉。面临此种生存困境,奥尼尔笔下的人类既极端绝望亦毫无信仰。然而,即便如此,以卡普莱特船长为代表的早期戏剧人物已经显示出不屈不挠的西西弗斯精神之端倪。奥尼尔自己的早期生活经历正是其剧中人物的真实写照。
第四章重点分析《毛猿》(The Hairy Ape),《奇异的插曲》(Strange Interlude)和《悲悼》(Mourning Becomes Electra)三个剧本。在这三个剧本中,奥尼尔将人物设置在复杂的人际关系中,人与他者的分裂关系得到淋漓尽致的展现。剧中主要人物都纠缠在与他者的交互矛盾和斗争中而难以自拔。而这种人与人之间的不可沟通性正是后来荒诞主义戏剧体现的现代人类生存状态的一个主要特征。
中期剧本大多聚焦于以不可交流性为特征的“人与人之间的交流”。基于萨特的“他人即地狱”的理论,这些戏剧作品刻画了人类是如何成为不可交流性的牺牲品。人类彼此对于生存理念迥异,故而彼此之间亦毫无交流的共同点。此外,人类之间的异化关系以“电话人”为意象代表,象征了人类存在的平庸状态。剧本中心理独白的大量运用也从另外一个侧面反映了人类之间的不可交流性。最终,为了各自的本真生存目标,《毛猿》中的扬克选择了死亡,《奇异的插曲》中的尼娜走向了平庸,而《悲悼》中的拉维尼娅则直面惨淡的人生
第五章探讨晚期三个剧本,《更庄严的大厦》(More Stately Mansions),《送冰的人来了》(The Iceman Cometh)和《日长路远夜深沉》(Long Day's Journey into Night)。在这三部奥尼尔的巅峰之作中,荒诞特征通过人与自身身份的分裂而达到与荒诞派戏剧最契合的境界。剧中的主要人物都在怀疑自身的存在,从而生存的本质得到不确定化。《更庄严的大厦》中萨拉与西蒙归于寂静的农场,那里他们最终悟到了本真的意义；《送冰的人来了》中拉里以哲学家的肃静诠释了何谓平庸,何谓超然。《日长路远夜深沉》则告诉世人本真存在就是自我分裂与融合中的理解,宽容与共存。他们的最终自我选择烘托出了最高境界的奥尼尔戏剧的荒诞性。人为何而存在,如何面对当下,如何找到“本真”的存在状态,诸如此类的命题成为剧中人的永恒梦魇,也成为现当代人的不朽追问。
结论部分试图总结认为,在异化的生存状态中,奥尼尔戏剧人物一直致力于体现人的本真生存状态—“世人如斯”,为各自的生存选择而不停奋争,不委曲求全于当下,不屈服于现实的桎梏,在思想境界上与加缪的西西弗斯斗争精神遥相呼应,从而在本质上传递了一种自由乐观的生存态度。因此,奥尼尔戏剧人物面对生存困境的精神境界表明剧作家本人不是一个悲天悯人的悲观主义者。相反,他通过作品传达了人类在面对生存困境时应当具备的不屈不挠的斗争精神。其次,奥尼尔戏剧不仅在思想层面上与荒诞主义戏剧契合,更在舞台技巧方面启示着荒诞主义戏剧和相关戏剧流派的发展方向。马丁·艾斯林在《荒诞派戏剧》中对于奥尼尔相关贡献的忽视启发我们,奥尼尔戏剧的舞台特征值得我们重视,更是需要将来进一步研究的地方。
Eugene O'Neill's plays are deeply concerned with human existential condition. Based upon his belief "men being what they are", his plays try to show us that human existence is characteristic of absurdity and struggle, which should be an authentic state of life. Despite the fact that there are titanic volumes of studies on O' Neill characters' existential conditions, the direct treatment of human existence and the absurd has been far from enough. First off, both in and out of the United States, most of the scholars focus on two or three O' Neill plays to treat the link between him and the absurd, from which the possible misunderstanding is that O' Neill's absurdity resides in merely several of his plays. Secondly, though not a few of these studies are involved in the aspect of absurdity, their conclusions drawn are frequently based on other issues rather than the research related to the absurd. In other words, as far as the current studies are concerned, there has been no one comprehensive and penetrative research on O'Neill's absurdity based on his whole dramatic career. This dissertation attempts to study the absurdity of O'Neill plays from the perspectives of alienation and authenticity.
First, with the comparisons between Existentialism, the absurd and the absurdity in O'Neill plays, this dissertation argues that O'Neill's absurdity is consistent with Existentialism and the absurd. From the perspectives of "repetition","faithlessness" and "incommunicability", O'Neill is theoretically connected to Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre and Camus. Moreover, O'Neill is deeply influenced by Nietzsche and shares similar theoretical sources, social background, philosophy of life and religious outlook with such absurdists as Camus. His characters' struggle is an echo of Camus's version of the Sisyphean spirit.
Second, in this dissertation, with the theories from Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre and Camus, these plays each are chosen from O'Neill's three creative periods in view of the relationships between man and nature, man and others, man and the self. It is argued that O'Neill's absurdity embodies what he endeavors to reveal,"men being what they are". In terms of dramatic thoughts, his plays are characteristic of alienation. On the one hand, human powerlessness and hopelessness represent man's alienation from nature. Faithlessness and incommunicability symbolize the alienation from others. The sense of not belonging, the loss of the self and cyclic fate denotes man's estrangement from the self. On the other, the characters display strong will power for survival when trapped in the alienated state. Their ways of struggle correspond to the Sisyphean spirit, which is suggestive of the playwright's optimistic treatment of human existence. Such a treatment is presented through "the truth of who they are","his struggle is his success!" and "his hatred of death". In terms of dramatic techniques, from the perspectives of "repetition", masked expressions, thought aside, dramatic action and stage space, O'Neill plays echo what Ionesco and Beckett are engaged in their absurdist plays and inspire the modernity of the world drama at large.
In view of the foregoing statement, this dissertation believes that O'Neill's sense of absurdity consists in not several of his plays, but his whole dramatic career. Martin Esslin in The Theatre of the Absurd apparently takes no notice of O'Neill's contributions to the absurdist plays. This dissertation consists of the following parts:
In the Introduction, those studies on O'Neill's absurdity in different periods of O'Neill criticism are analyzed. From1934through the twenty-first century, scholars have been engaged in O'Neill characters' existential conditions from the duality of personality, the pursuit of love and happiness, incommunicability, alienation,"belonging", everydayness and so on.
Chapter One is devoted to human alienated existence through comparing the thoughts of Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre and Camus. Human alienation chiefly lies in "repetition", faithlessness and incommunicability which are all demonstrated in O'Neill plays. The relationship between Existentialism and the absurd, particularly the philosophical inheritance of the absurd from Existentialism, is discussed. Similarities and differences between them are analyzed in view of the theories chiefly from Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre and Camus. The distinctive absurdist features reflected in O'Neill's dramas are explored in order to demonstrate the overlappings, juxtapositions and differences between him, the existentialists and the major absurdist playwrights.
Chapter Two deals with an authentic existence human beings should struggle for. The authentic existence is composed of "the truth of who they are","his struggle is his success" and "his hatred of death". What's more, the similar views among O'Neill, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Camus and other theorists are tackled so as to demonstrate that O' Neill plays convey the spirit of struggle, faith and optimism. From the persctives of "the true self","freedom","struggle", family relationship, and memory, O' Neill's characters display the indefatigable spirit in their fighting for an authentic way of existence.
Chapter Three is concerned about the alienation between man and nature in the three early sea plays, Thirst, Gold, and Where the Cross Is Made. In these plays, the characters turn out to be totally powerless and hopeless when confronted with an indifferent nature.
It is through delineation of the natural forces,"the biological world of environment", that O'Neill plays convey the alienated human existence."The biological world of environment" is presented through an indifferent and threatening nature with the sea, shark, and an illusory treasure as representatives. From O'Neill's arrangement of these natural images, it can be seen that the relationship between his characters and nature is antagonistic and alienated. The nature is indifferent because there is no possibility of survival, however desperate the characters are in their struggle. The nature is also threatening due to the situation in which the characters are completely powerless. Faced with the frustrating existential condition, human existence is replete with hopelessness and faithlessness. In such hopeless situations, many characters with the Captain Bartlett as a representative have showed signs of the Sisyphean spirit. O'Neill's early life is a reflection of this situation. His wandering experience leaves him nothing but his detestation of the sea.
Chapter Four concentrates on the alienation between man and others in the three plays, The Hairy Ape, Strange Interlude and Mourning Becomes Electra. In this period, O' Neill often situates his characters' sufferings in complicated and hellish communications, in which they are unable to extricate themselves from incommunicability. Such incommunicability is equally what the Theater of the Absurd tries to delineate and stage.
The middle plays are devoted to "the interaction of human beings upon one another" which is characteristic of incommunicability. Based upon the idea "hell is the others", plays in this period indicate that the characters are victims of incommunicability. There is no common ground for them to communicate due to their different understandings of the existential conditions. Their alienated relationships are associated with "a telephone man" image which is a representation of everydayness. Another representation of incommunicability is that the characters are often involved in the thought aside, ignoring each other's speaking.
Chapter Five explores the alienation between man and the self in More Stately Mansions, The Iceman Cometh, Long Day's Journey into Night. Such human alienated state brings closer O' Neill plays to the Theatre of the absurd. Most of the characters are torn between the illusory self and the realistic one, and feel uncertain about where their true identities lie. Issues like the meaningfulness of existence, the right attitude towards current existence and the way to authentic existence keep haunting O'Neill characters as well as human beings in real life. Sara and Simon's return to the farm in More Stately Mansions, Larry's detachment from those outcasts in The Iceman Cometh, and the Tyrones in Long Day's Journey into Night attest to the nature of the authentic existence. Their ultimate choices for either the illusory self or the realistic one largely give expressions to O'Neill's sense of absurdity.
In the conclusion part, it has been tentatively concluded that O'Neill characters in their alienated existence choose to struggle for an authentic way of life,"men being what they are", rather than surrender. In their different approaches to and choices for authenticity, they display what Sisyphus fights with unyieldingness and persistence. Hence, his plays are replete with enthusiasm and passion for survival. O'Neill's treatment of his characters' struggle indicates that he is by no means a pessimist. Rather, his plays help advocate courage and optimism in the existential plight. Not only in terms of thoughts, but also dramatic techniques does O'Neill anticipate the Theatre of the Absurd as well as other related types of drama. Martin Esslin's negligence of O' Neill's contributions enlightens us on the fact that more studies should be made on the relationship between O'Neill stagecraft and the Theatre of The Absurd.
引文
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