高活性镍基析氢电极的制备及其在碱性条件下析氢行为研究
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摘要
随着能源危机以及环境污染的日益加剧，各种新能源和可再生能源的开发已受到世界各国的高度重视，而氢气作为二次能源以其清洁无污染、高效、可储存和运输等优点，被视为最为理想的能源载体。从自然界中大规模获取纯净的氢气作为开发和利用氢能源重要环节之一，目前业已发展的制氢方法有很多，但在各种制氢技术中，电解水制氢具有产品纯度高、电解效率高、无污染、取材丰富等优点已被广泛利用。但由于电解过程中存在能耗较高问题，因而限制了该项技术的进一步发展。而通过降低电解槽阴极析氢过电位来实现降低能耗的途径已成为普遍共识。进入20世纪70年代以来，各种高活性镍基析氢电极的开发为降低阴极析氢过电位提供了广阔的前景，而镍基析氢电极主要有四大类：镍基合金系析氢电极、多孔镍系析氢电极、镍基贵金属氧化物系析氢电极以及镍基弥散复合系析氢电极，但目前关于镍基合金系析氢电极的结晶结构与其析氢行为缺乏详细研究，多孔镍系析氢电极目前的制备方法对电极表面的孔结构缺乏有效控制，镍基贵金属氧化物系析氢电极其析氢活性很难进一步提高。因此，继续开发和完善高活性镍基析氢电极的研究显得十分必要。
基于以上研究背景，本论文主要进行了三方面的研究：对于镍基合金系析氢电极，主要研究Ni-S、Ni-Sn两种合金的结晶结构与其析氢活性以及析氢机制的关联；对于多孔镍系析氢电极，主要研究了多孔镍电极的孔结构以及孔密度可控制备的规律；对于镍基贵金属氧化物析氢电极，主要对现有商业化镍网基贵金属氧化物电极进行改进，以泡沫金属镍替代商业电极中镍网基底，以进一步提高其析氢电催化活性。在本论文的研究中，主要通过电沉积法以及涂覆热分解法成功制备出Ni-S、Ni-Sn、多孔镍析氢电极以及具有高表面积的贵金属氧化物析氢电极。并采用XRD、SEM、EDS、HRTEM、XPS等物性评价方法对所制得的析氢电极进行结构表征，对所得到具有典型结构以及形貌特征的析氢电极采用电化学测试方法对其在碱性条件下的析氢行为进行系统评价，并揭示其结构与析氢行为的内在关联。具体取得的创新性的结果如下：
(1)本论文采用恒电流电沉积法成功制备出非晶/Ni_3S_2混晶、Ni_3S_2以及Ni_3S_2/NiS混晶三种结构的镍硫合金，并且通过引入磺基水杨酸作为表面活性剂，消除在电沉积过程中由残留应力而产生裂纹的负面影响，通过建立结晶结构与析氢性能之间的关系发现，Ni_3S_2是影响其析氢电催化活性的主要因素；并在结晶结构与析氢机制关联的研究中，揭示了镍硫合金析氢机制由Volmer、Heyrovsky以及扩散混合控制，其中电荷转移过程是整个析氢反应过程的速率控制步骤，且Ni_3S_2金属间化合物镍硫合金具有最快的电荷转移过程。
(2)本论文采用恒电流电沉积法成功制备出非晶、Ni_3Sn_2/Ni_3Sn_4混晶以及Sn/Ni_3Sn_4三种结构的镍锡合金，通过对其结晶结构分析发现，非晶结构镍锡合金是由镍晶胚与非晶镍锡而构成，Ni_3Sn_2/Ni_3Sn_4混晶呈现层状自主装排列；通过建立结晶结构与析氢性能之间的关系发现，非晶镍锡合金具有较好的电催化活性，比纯镍电极析氢过电位降低近200mV，其良好的析氢活性源于镍锡合金化后，能够有效降低镍原子表面富余d电子与活性氢原子之间的成键能力，削弱了金属原子M-H之间的键能，进而有利于提高活性氢的脱附能力，提高了析氢催化性能.通过在结晶结构与析氢机制关联的研究中，揭示了非晶以及混晶结构的镍锡合金在析氢电催化反应过程中由Volmer以及Heyrovsky两个电荷转移过程控制，且在相同极化电位下，非晶结构的镍锡合金电极相比于Ni_3Sn_4与Ni_3Sn_2混晶结构电极的高活性源于其具有更快的电荷转移速度以及更快的扩散速度。
(3)本文通过模板辅助复合电沉积法成功的制备出多孔镍析氢电极，通过对多孔镍析氢电极制备过程的研究中发现，通过控制PS微球在镀液中的含量、PS微球粒径以及沉积电流密度可以达到对多孔镍电极表面孔结构的可控制备。所制备的多孔结构镍电极表面孔密度可达到10~8/cm~2；通过在1M NaOH溶液中的极化曲线测试可知：随着电极表面孔隙度的增大，其在碱性条件下的电催化活性逐渐升高，多孔结构镍电极析氢反应过程的表面活化能可达到17.26kJ·mol~(-1)；通过对多孔镍电极的机理分析，揭示了多孔镍电极在析氢电催化过程中由扩散以及电荷转移过程混合控制，其良好的析氢活性主要来自于较大的电化学表面积。
(4)本文以高表面积的泡沫镍作为导电基底，利用涂覆热分解法成功制备出泡沫镍基贵金属氧化物析氢电极，通过结晶结构以及元素分析得知，所制备的贵金属氧化物电极活性层由RuO_2、NiO以及CeO_2而构成，活性层中贵金属RuO_2用量为26.5g·m~(-2)；通过与商业化电极对比发现，所制备的泡沫镍基贵金属氧化物析氢电极在高电流密度电解条件下，析氢过电位比目前商业化电极低200mV以上，且通过与本文中其他三种析氢电极相比较，所制备的泡沫镍基贵金属氧化物具有最低的表观活化能，即具有较好的起始析氢活性，故表现出良好的工业化应用前景；通过对其析氢电化学过程表明，所制备的泡沫镍基贵金属氧化物析氢电极具有较快的电荷转移过程，其较快的电荷转移过程主要来自于较高的电化学活性表面积所提供更多的反应单元，且其析氢过程由Volmer以及Heyrovsky两个电荷转移过程控制和非法拉第扩散过程混合控制，其中电荷转移控制过程是整个析氢反应的速率控制步骤。
With the decrease of energy storage and the aggravation ofenvironmental pollution, much attention has been paid to thedevelopment of various new energy materials or renewable energyresource by many countries in recent years. As a secondary energy,hydrogen is considered as the most ideal energy carrier for its clean, highefficiency, storability and transportability. Among all of the approachesfor the synthesis of hydrogen, water electrolysis has been widely usedbecause of its environmental friendly, high efficitncy and considerableproduct purity. However, for this approach, numerous electric energy wasdemanded in the electrolysis process. It has become a common opinionthat reducing the hydrogen evolution over-potential during waterelectrolysis could reduce the energy consumption. Since the1970s, theinvestigation of various nickel-based hydrogen evolution electrodes withhigh activity provided broad prospects for the reducing of theover-potential for the hydrogen evolution process. nickel-based hydrogenevolution electrodes mainly have four major categories: nickel-based alloys, active porous nickel, nickel-based noble metal oxide electrode,and nickel-based dispersed composite electrode. But, the detailed study ofthe crystalline structure of nickel-based hydrogen evolution electrodesand the relationship between their hydrogen evolution behaviors are stilldevoid. For the preparation of porous nickel-based hydrogen evolutionelectrodes, few methods were reported to effectively control the porousstructure on the electrode surface. Besides, it is difficult to furtherimprove the hydrogen evolution reaction of the nickel-based noble metaloxide. Therefore, it is necessary to develop highly active nickel-basedelectrode for hydrogen evolution reaction.
Based on the background mentioned above, herein, three main researchaspects were carried out.(1) The crystalline structure of Ni-S, Ni-Snbinary alloy, was detailedly investigated as well as its correspondinghydrogen evolution performance and mechanisms;(2) Active porousnickel electrodes with tunable pore size and density were successfullyobtained and also the main rules for the controllable preparation wereproposed.(3) Facile modification was made to further enhance theelectro-catalytic activity for the hydrogen evolution of the commercialnickel mesh-based noble metal oxide electrodes. In this article, we havesuccessfully prepared various hydrogen evolution electrodes including:Ni-S, Ni-Sn, porous nickel, and nickel-based noble metal oxide through electrodepositon method and thermal annealing method. The X-raydiffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energydispersive spectroscopy (EDS), high-resolution transmission electronmicroscopy (HRTEM), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)were taken to characterize the morphologies and structures of thehydrogen evolution electrodes. Besides, the electrochemcialperformances of the as-prepared electrodes with typical structures andmorphologies for the hydrogen evolution reaction were detailedlyinvestigated by cathode polarization, electrochemical impadancespectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry. Accordingly, we proposed theinternal relationship between the electrode structure and its hydrogenevolution behavior. These results are summarized as follows:
(1)The Ni-S alloy with two kinds of structures, including: amorphous/Ni_3S_2mixed crystals, and Ni_3Sn_2were successfully prepared bygalvanostatic electrodeposition respectively. By using sulfo salicylicacid as surfactant, the residual stress could be effectively eliminatedduring the electro-deposition process. thus the micron-cracks on thedeposited electrode disappered The relationships between the crystalstructures of the obtained electrodes and their hydrogen evolutionbehaviors were studied. It is concluded that the presence of Ni_3S_2is themain factor which influenced the electrocatalytic hydrogen evolutionactivity. The mechanism of the hydrogen evolution process on the nickel-sulfur alloy electrode were controlled by Volmer, Heyrovsky,and diffusion processes In these processes, charge transfer is the ratecontrol step of the entire hydrogen evolution reaction. Besides, themetallic compound of nickel-sulfur alloy-Ni_3S_2performed the mostfast charge transfer process.
(2)The nickel-tin alloy electrodes with three kinds of structures:amorphous, Ni_3Sn_2/Ni_3Sn_4mixed crystals, and Sn/Ni_3Sn_4wereprepared by galvanostatic electrodeposition. It is found that the crystalstructure of the amorphous alloy is constituted with nickel embryos andamorphous nickel-tin. The mixed crystals of Ni_3Sn_2/Ni_3Sn_4showedlayered self-assembly arrangement. By establishing the relationshipbetween the crystal structures and their hydrogen evolutionperformance, it showed that the amorphous Ni-Sn alloys has betterelectrocatalytic activity than pure nickel, the overpotential of hydrogenevolution reaction were reduced by nearly200mV. Its good activitywas attributed to the alloying of Ni and Sn, This effect coud decreasethe bonding ability between the d-orbit electrons in Ni and active Hatoms thus weakening the bond energy of the metal atom and H atom(M-H). The desorption of active H atoms was enhanced and thehydrogen evolution was improved. The relationship between thecrystal structures and their hydrogen evolution mechanisms fo thenickel-tin alloys was detailedly discussed and it is found that the reaction procedure is controlled by two charge transfer processes ofVolmer and Heyrovsky. Besides, the non-faraday diffusion was alsoobserved. At the same polarization potential, the amorphous nickel-tinelectrode performed a much higher activity than that of the Ni_3Sn_4andNi_3Sn_2mixed electrode. This phenomenon is owing to the faster chargetransfer speed and faster diffusion rate.
(3)Porous nickel hydrogen evolution electrode were obtained by aemplate-assisted composite electrodeposition method using modifiedpolystyrene (PS) microsphere as the template. The surface structuresuch as porous size and density of the electrode could be facilecontrolled by changing the content or size of the PS microspheres inthe plating bath as well as the depositing current density. The porosityof the prepared porous nickel electrode can reach10~8/cm~2. From thepolarization curves of the prepared electrodes carried out in1M NaOHsolution, it is considered that with the increasing of the porous density,the electrocatalytic activity gradually increased. The apparentactivation energy of the porous nickel electrode in hydrogen evolutionreaction can reach to17.26kJ·mol~(-1). The mechanism for the hydrogenevolution reaction of the porous nickle electrode was discussed and itis deduced that the process is controlled by both diffusion and chargetransfer. The excellent hydrogen evolution performance is attributed tothe large electrochemical specific surface area.
(4)Nickel foam based noble metal oxides hydrogen evolution electrodewas prepared by thermal annealing using high surface area nickel foamas the conductive substrate. From the crystal structure and elementalanalysis, it showed that the active layer of the noble metal oxideelectrode was constituted by RuO_2, NiO, and CeO_2. The content ofRuO_2in the active layer was26.5g/m~2. Compared with the commercialelectrode, the hydrogen evolution over-potential of the obtained nickelfoam based noble oxides electrode is decreased by more than200mV,which showed potential prospects for industrial application. The asprepared nickel foam based precious oxides electrode performed a fastcharge transfer process during hydrogen evolution reaction. This ismainly owing to its high electrochemical active surface area whichcould provide more active reaction units. The hydrogen evolutionprocess is also controlled by two charge transfer processes of Volmerand Heyrovsky and a nonfaradaic diffusion process.
基于以上研究背景，本论文主要进行了三方面的研究：对于镍基合金系析氢电极，主要研究Ni-S、Ni-Sn两种合金的结晶结构与其析氢活性以及析氢机制的关联；对于多孔镍系析氢电极，主要研究了多孔镍电极的孔结构以及孔密度可控制备的规律；对于镍基贵金属氧化物析氢电极，主要对现有商业化镍网基贵金属氧化物电极进行改进，以泡沫金属镍替代商业电极中镍网基底，以进一步提高其析氢电催化活性。在本论文的研究中，主要通过电沉积法以及涂覆热分解法成功制备出Ni-S、Ni-Sn、多孔镍析氢电极以及具有高表面积的贵金属氧化物析氢电极。并采用XRD、SEM、EDS、HRTEM、XPS等物性评价方法对所制得的析氢电极进行结构表征，对所得到具有典型结构以及形貌特征的析氢电极采用电化学测试方法对其在碱性条件下的析氢行为进行系统评价，并揭示其结构与析氢行为的内在关联。具体取得的创新性的结果如下：
(1)本论文采用恒电流电沉积法成功制备出非晶/Ni_3S_2混晶、Ni_3S_2以及Ni_3S_2/NiS混晶三种结构的镍硫合金，并且通过引入磺基水杨酸作为表面活性剂，消除在电沉积过程中由残留应力而产生裂纹的负面影响，通过建立结晶结构与析氢性能之间的关系发现，Ni_3S_2是影响其析氢电催化活性的主要因素；并在结晶结构与析氢机制关联的研究中，揭示了镍硫合金析氢机制由Volmer、Heyrovsky以及扩散混合控制，其中电荷转移过程是整个析氢反应过程的速率控制步骤，且Ni_3S_2金属间化合物镍硫合金具有最快的电荷转移过程。
(2)本论文采用恒电流电沉积法成功制备出非晶、Ni_3Sn_2/Ni_3Sn_4混晶以及Sn/Ni_3Sn_4三种结构的镍锡合金，通过对其结晶结构分析发现，非晶结构镍锡合金是由镍晶胚与非晶镍锡而构成，Ni_3Sn_2/Ni_3Sn_4混晶呈现层状自主装排列；通过建立结晶结构与析氢性能之间的关系发现，非晶镍锡合金具有较好的电催化活性，比纯镍电极析氢过电位降低近200mV，其良好的析氢活性源于镍锡合金化后，能够有效降低镍原子表面富余d电子与活性氢原子之间的成键能力，削弱了金属原子M-H之间的键能，进而有利于提高活性氢的脱附能力，提高了析氢催化性能.通过在结晶结构与析氢机制关联的研究中，揭示了非晶以及混晶结构的镍锡合金在析氢电催化反应过程中由Volmer以及Heyrovsky两个电荷转移过程控制，且在相同极化电位下，非晶结构的镍锡合金电极相比于Ni_3Sn_4与Ni_3Sn_2混晶结构电极的高活性源于其具有更快的电荷转移速度以及更快的扩散速度。
(3)本文通过模板辅助复合电沉积法成功的制备出多孔镍析氢电极，通过对多孔镍析氢电极制备过程的研究中发现，通过控制PS微球在镀液中的含量、PS微球粒径以及沉积电流密度可以达到对多孔镍电极表面孔结构的可控制备。所制备的多孔结构镍电极表面孔密度可达到10~8/cm~2；通过在1M NaOH溶液中的极化曲线测试可知：随着电极表面孔隙度的增大，其在碱性条件下的电催化活性逐渐升高，多孔结构镍电极析氢反应过程的表面活化能可达到17.26kJ·mol~(-1)；通过对多孔镍电极的机理分析，揭示了多孔镍电极在析氢电催化过程中由扩散以及电荷转移过程混合控制，其良好的析氢活性主要来自于较大的电化学表面积。
(4)本文以高表面积的泡沫镍作为导电基底，利用涂覆热分解法成功制备出泡沫镍基贵金属氧化物析氢电极，通过结晶结构以及元素分析得知，所制备的贵金属氧化物电极活性层由RuO_2、NiO以及CeO_2而构成，活性层中贵金属RuO_2用量为26.5g·m~(-2)；通过与商业化电极对比发现，所制备的泡沫镍基贵金属氧化物析氢电极在高电流密度电解条件下，析氢过电位比目前商业化电极低200mV以上，且通过与本文中其他三种析氢电极相比较，所制备的泡沫镍基贵金属氧化物具有最低的表观活化能，即具有较好的起始析氢活性，故表现出良好的工业化应用前景；通过对其析氢电化学过程表明，所制备的泡沫镍基贵金属氧化物析氢电极具有较快的电荷转移过程，其较快的电荷转移过程主要来自于较高的电化学活性表面积所提供更多的反应单元，且其析氢过程由Volmer以及Heyrovsky两个电荷转移过程控制和非法拉第扩散过程混合控制，其中电荷转移控制过程是整个析氢反应的速率控制步骤。
With the decrease of energy storage and the aggravation ofenvironmental pollution, much attention has been paid to thedevelopment of various new energy materials or renewable energyresource by many countries in recent years. As a secondary energy,hydrogen is considered as the most ideal energy carrier for its clean, highefficiency, storability and transportability. Among all of the approachesfor the synthesis of hydrogen, water electrolysis has been widely usedbecause of its environmental friendly, high efficitncy and considerableproduct purity. However, for this approach, numerous electric energy wasdemanded in the electrolysis process. It has become a common opinionthat reducing the hydrogen evolution over-potential during waterelectrolysis could reduce the energy consumption. Since the1970s, theinvestigation of various nickel-based hydrogen evolution electrodes withhigh activity provided broad prospects for the reducing of theover-potential for the hydrogen evolution process. nickel-based hydrogenevolution electrodes mainly have four major categories: nickel-based alloys, active porous nickel, nickel-based noble metal oxide electrode,and nickel-based dispersed composite electrode. But, the detailed study ofthe crystalline structure of nickel-based hydrogen evolution electrodesand the relationship between their hydrogen evolution behaviors are stilldevoid. For the preparation of porous nickel-based hydrogen evolutionelectrodes, few methods were reported to effectively control the porousstructure on the electrode surface. Besides, it is difficult to furtherimprove the hydrogen evolution reaction of the nickel-based noble metaloxide. Therefore, it is necessary to develop highly active nickel-basedelectrode for hydrogen evolution reaction.
Based on the background mentioned above, herein, three main researchaspects were carried out.(1) The crystalline structure of Ni-S, Ni-Snbinary alloy, was detailedly investigated as well as its correspondinghydrogen evolution performance and mechanisms;(2) Active porousnickel electrodes with tunable pore size and density were successfullyobtained and also the main rules for the controllable preparation wereproposed.(3) Facile modification was made to further enhance theelectro-catalytic activity for the hydrogen evolution of the commercialnickel mesh-based noble metal oxide electrodes. In this article, we havesuccessfully prepared various hydrogen evolution electrodes including:Ni-S, Ni-Sn, porous nickel, and nickel-based noble metal oxide through electrodepositon method and thermal annealing method. The X-raydiffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energydispersive spectroscopy (EDS), high-resolution transmission electronmicroscopy (HRTEM), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)were taken to characterize the morphologies and structures of thehydrogen evolution electrodes. Besides, the electrochemcialperformances of the as-prepared electrodes with typical structures andmorphologies for the hydrogen evolution reaction were detailedlyinvestigated by cathode polarization, electrochemical impadancespectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry. Accordingly, we proposed theinternal relationship between the electrode structure and its hydrogenevolution behavior. These results are summarized as follows:
(1)The Ni-S alloy with two kinds of structures, including: amorphous/Ni_3S_2mixed crystals, and Ni_3Sn_2were successfully prepared bygalvanostatic electrodeposition respectively. By using sulfo salicylicacid as surfactant, the residual stress could be effectively eliminatedduring the electro-deposition process. thus the micron-cracks on thedeposited electrode disappered The relationships between the crystalstructures of the obtained electrodes and their hydrogen evolutionbehaviors were studied. It is concluded that the presence of Ni_3S_2is themain factor which influenced the electrocatalytic hydrogen evolutionactivity. The mechanism of the hydrogen evolution process on the nickel-sulfur alloy electrode were controlled by Volmer, Heyrovsky,and diffusion processes In these processes, charge transfer is the ratecontrol step of the entire hydrogen evolution reaction. Besides, themetallic compound of nickel-sulfur alloy-Ni_3S_2performed the mostfast charge transfer process.
(2)The nickel-tin alloy electrodes with three kinds of structures:amorphous, Ni_3Sn_2/Ni_3Sn_4mixed crystals, and Sn/Ni_3Sn_4wereprepared by galvanostatic electrodeposition. It is found that the crystalstructure of the amorphous alloy is constituted with nickel embryos andamorphous nickel-tin. The mixed crystals of Ni_3Sn_2/Ni_3Sn_4showedlayered self-assembly arrangement. By establishing the relationshipbetween the crystal structures and their hydrogen evolutionperformance, it showed that the amorphous Ni-Sn alloys has betterelectrocatalytic activity than pure nickel, the overpotential of hydrogenevolution reaction were reduced by nearly200mV. Its good activitywas attributed to the alloying of Ni and Sn, This effect coud decreasethe bonding ability between the d-orbit electrons in Ni and active Hatoms thus weakening the bond energy of the metal atom and H atom(M-H). The desorption of active H atoms was enhanced and thehydrogen evolution was improved. The relationship between thecrystal structures and their hydrogen evolution mechanisms fo thenickel-tin alloys was detailedly discussed and it is found that the reaction procedure is controlled by two charge transfer processes ofVolmer and Heyrovsky. Besides, the non-faraday diffusion was alsoobserved. At the same polarization potential, the amorphous nickel-tinelectrode performed a much higher activity than that of the Ni_3Sn_4andNi_3Sn_2mixed electrode. This phenomenon is owing to the faster chargetransfer speed and faster diffusion rate.
(3)Porous nickel hydrogen evolution electrode were obtained by aemplate-assisted composite electrodeposition method using modifiedpolystyrene (PS) microsphere as the template. The surface structuresuch as porous size and density of the electrode could be facilecontrolled by changing the content or size of the PS microspheres inthe plating bath as well as the depositing current density. The porosityof the prepared porous nickel electrode can reach10~8/cm~2. From thepolarization curves of the prepared electrodes carried out in1M NaOHsolution, it is considered that with the increasing of the porous density,the electrocatalytic activity gradually increased. The apparentactivation energy of the porous nickel electrode in hydrogen evolutionreaction can reach to17.26kJ·mol~(-1). The mechanism for the hydrogenevolution reaction of the porous nickle electrode was discussed and itis deduced that the process is controlled by both diffusion and chargetransfer. The excellent hydrogen evolution performance is attributed tothe large electrochemical specific surface area.
(4)Nickel foam based noble metal oxides hydrogen evolution electrodewas prepared by thermal annealing using high surface area nickel foamas the conductive substrate. From the crystal structure and elementalanalysis, it showed that the active layer of the noble metal oxideelectrode was constituted by RuO_2, NiO, and CeO_2. The content ofRuO_2in the active layer was26.5g/m~2. Compared with the commercialelectrode, the hydrogen evolution over-potential of the obtained nickelfoam based noble oxides electrode is decreased by more than200mV,which showed potential prospects for industrial application. The asprepared nickel foam based precious oxides electrode performed a fastcharge transfer process during hydrogen evolution reaction. This ismainly owing to its high electrochemical active surface area whichcould provide more active reaction units. The hydrogen evolutionprocess is also controlled by two charge transfer processes of Volmerand Heyrovsky and a nonfaradaic diffusion process.
引文
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