护理学学科体系构建的探索性研究
|
摘要
随着我国社会的迅速发展,护理学逐渐形成了自己的理论知识体系,护理教育也形成了从中专到博士研究生的全层次培养体系。但我国护理学还是临床医学下的二级学科,其学科定位问题一直没有得到很好的解决和广泛的认同,这就导致了在护理教学和护理实践中的一些乱象,如护理教育的培养目标定位不当、课程设置不能反映护理学科的人文属性等。将护理学定位在一级学科,可以按照护理学科的特点和临床对人才的需求制定适合护理学专业发展的人才培养计划,为护理学科培养高层次的科研队伍,这将为护理学科的发展提供更加广阔的发展空间。
合理的学科划分是专业设置的指南,也是学科发展的基础,构建适合我国国情的护理学学科体系需要科学的理论指导与研究。对护理学科体系内部进行分类,是为了科学地反映护理学发展的实际及把握其发展趋势,以加强对护理学的规划和指导,提高护理研究和护理理论的水平,从而更有力地指导护理教育和护理实践。
本研究主要采用文献研究法和历史研究法,确定学科成熟所需要的条件,论证护理学定位为一级学科的必要性和可行性；针对我国目前护理学科发展的现状和我国的国情,对我国的护理学科进行历史性分析,参照美国的护理学科发展历史及现状,探讨学科发展的动因和条件；根据护理学科的特点和学科构建的原则,提出我国护理学学科体系的基本框架及研究生专业设置展望,为我国护理学科的发展及护理学学科体系的构建提供具有指导意义的理论框架。
本文共分五大部分
第一部分：概论
介绍了选题的背景、国内外相关研究现状、研究的意义、相关概念界定。阐述了课题的研究思路和方法,包括文献研究和历史研究,通过综合分析中西方护理学科的发展过程,结合中美两国护理学科发展的动因和条件,在此基础上提出可供我国护理学学科体系构建借鉴的理论框架。
第二部分：我国护理学定位为一级学科的必要性和可行性
护理学科定位为一级学科是高等护理教育发展的需要。护理学科定位于一级学科,有助于护理学科成员强化学科主体意识和主观能动性,推动学科体系的完善和学科理论的发展,形成护理学科的科学的哲学观、思想方法、专业精神,并应用于全面调整护理学各层次教育的培养目标和课程设置,形成具有学科特色的各层次人才的培养方案,以培养具有批判精神和人文精神的护理学科创新性人才,发展护理学科合理的高层次人才队伍。
护理学定位为一级学科也是护理实践发展的需要。护理学在护理理念、工作性质和工作范畴方面已发生了重大的变化。同临床医学相比,护理学日益呈现出其重视人而不仅仅是重视疾病的本质,护士的工作已扩大到了医院以外的场所,护士的工作范畴已超出了临床医学一级学科的范畴。护理实践这些方面的变化,一方面使护理工作者深入进行新问题的研究,需要增加新的知识对问题做出解释和回答,这些知识已不是临床医学所能涵盖的；另一方面,从照护病人的角度,护理实践的独立性与自主性也大大提高,实现了与医生合作照护和负责病人,进一步提升护理质量。
护理学科定位为一级学科也是护理研究的需要。目前护理学科的定位一方面影响了护理学科人才队伍的建设,另一方面不足以引起政府有关部门对护理学科的重视,严重限制了国家、地区和部门对护理学科的投入和资源的分配。
就护理学本身的成熟程度而言,定位为一级学科也有其理论基础,护理学以人、环境、健康和护理作为学科的基本概念框架,已经形成了自己的理论和知识体系,并显现了与医学的区别。目前护理学的学科体系的雏形已经基本形成。随着学科的发展,一级学科逐渐增加,而二级学科逐渐减少,这是学科发展的自然生态。因此,护理学定位为一级学科也是护理学自身发展成熟水平所决定的。
第三部分：美国护理学科发展历史对我国的启示
美国护理学科是在南丁格尔的护理理念中逐渐发展起来的。在1850年以前,护理的重点是提供照护和促进舒适,注重于疾病本身而不是整体的病人。1900s后医学的快速发展对护理学的发展起到了极大的促进作用,医生与护士需要合作,在专业化的医疗环境中的护理实践促进了专科护理知识的发展,护理学科逐渐建立起来。在20世纪50到60年代,美国护理学者意识到了护理科研对学科发展的重要性,开始大力发展护理科学研究。学科的发展开始重视护理的概念和研究范围、学术气氛和学者的发展。70年代末期和80年代,护理学者开始反思有关护理概念、护理范围和发展知识的适当方法,他们借助哲学的探索方法探讨关于护理知识本质的问题,并且用适当的研究方法发展护理知识。在以后的护理学发展过程中,将教育、研究和实践进行整合,发展护理学独有的知识体系是护理学科的重点。研究的重点是护理结局、人和环境的作用及护理哲学,护理学科被充分接纳作为一门科学,护理实践是基于特定知识体系的实践,护理知识被承认作为卫生保健知识的一部分。至此,美国的护理学科已经得到了极大的发展,护理学科的知识体系也已经形成了多层次、多维度和多样性的卫生保健领域的独有的知识体系,包括从护理哲学到各科临床护理,以及个体的与护理有关的生理和心理知识。
第四部分：我国护理学科发展历史借鉴
我国护理学科的发展之初也深受南丁格尔护理理念的影响,19世纪后期,随着教会护理的发展而逐渐发展起来。西方教会人员在中国开办医院和创立护校,为我国护理学科的发展奠定了基础,尤以美国中华医学基金会的资助开办的中国协和医学院护校,开创我国高等护理教育先河,培养了一批优秀的高级护理人才和护理学科的领军人物。
建国后,由于各种政治和经济原因,我国停办高等护理教育,将护理教育定位于中专教育,与美国等西方国家的学术交流中断,这使得我国护理学科的发展陷入了低谷。文革期间,护校停办,护士转行做医生,护理被认为是没有任何知识和技术含量,不需要训练就能做的工作,医院的许多护理工作由家属来完成。中华护理学会在文革期间也停止了所有的学术活动,正常的工作秩序被打乱,这严重阻碍了护理学科的发展。
在文革结束后,市场经济和改革开放政策使得护理学科有机会发展新的教育项目和完善专业结构。我国高等护理教育自80年代中期恢复后逐步走上了正轨。在这个过程中,护理实践也开始改革,70年代末期和80年代引进的责任制护理代替了多年的功能制护理,把人看作不仅是生理的人,而且是心理和社会的人,注重与病人之间的沟通和护患关系。90年代中期,由美籍华人袁剑云博士来华讲学并引进了一种新型的护理工作形式——系统化整体护理,把人看作一个不可分割的整体,更加强调护理对象的生理-心理-社会的完好状态。在科研方面,不但实施了系统化的护理量性研究,还进行了大量的护理质性研究,为发展护理学科的知识体系提供了条件。
第五部分：我国护理学学科体系构建的初步设想
纵观我国和美国护理学科的发展历史可以看出,美国护理学科的发展过程是随着社会的发展和人们对健康的需求而逐渐发展的,由院办护校的建立、大学护理教育、护理研究生教育,到临床护理专业化的发展,护理学科体系逐步完善。我国护理教育已经形成了从中专到博士的多层次护理教育体系,但是学科体系不是很完整,有必要在相关理论指导下构建护理学的学科体系,以指导护理研究生的专业设置,促进护理学科的发展。
对我国护理学科体系的构建,应该植根于我国护理实践,结合国内外护理学科的发展实际,遵循反思性、自主性、科学性、实践性和系统性原则,参考其他学科分类的方法,按照护理学的研究对象——护理活动进行学科分类,按照科学的一般理论,结合教育学科体系的构建方法,分为基础学科、技术和方法学科以及应用学科三大类,以科学地反映护理学发展的实际及预测其发展趋势,提高护理研究的水平,进一步发展护理学科。
当然,护理学科体系的构建不是一成不变的,具有开放性,可以随着教育科学的发展而不断增加新的维度和新的层次。这一学科体系的结构只是探索性研究,是否妥当,还需要实践的检验。
Along with the development of medicine, nursing has its body of knowledge. Nursing education in China has its full system from diploma to doctoral level. However, nursing is still a specialty of medicine, which impeded the development of nursing. The collegiate nursing education was resumed in 1985 after the foundation of China. Therefore, higher degree nurses were in need, especially the faculty of the schools of nursing. The specialties of the graduate nursing education were classified according to the function of nursing such as administration and education in the early time. The clinical and basic specialties were not embodied clearly. How to classify the body of nursing knowledge and set up the specialties of graduate nursing education are important tasks because they are related to the development of nursing discipline and graduate nursing education.
Reasonable classification of the knowledge body of nursing is the guideline for setting up the specialties for the graduate education. The construction of nursing discipline in China needs scientific theory as a guideline. The development of nursing education should adapt to the economic and people's needs. Nursing is a practical discipline. We should put it in the social environment for the classification. The classification of the knowledge body of nursing will guide the knowledge development and theory construction, which will guide the clinical practice. This paper is a historical and literature research, which explored the development of nursing both in China and America. It is expected to have a significant meaning for the construction of nursing discipline in China.
This paper consists of five parts, which are shown as follows:
Part One:Introduction
First, the background, the meaning, the purpose of the study and related study in this area were reviewed and discussed. Second, the scheme and approaches applied in this study were described, which include literature analysis, survey, and historical research.
Part Two:The necessity and possibility of nursing being set as an independent discipline
Nursing has its theoretical basis to be an independent discipline. It has its own concepts frame:human being, environment, health, and nursing as well as its own body of knowledge, which indicates the difference between nursing and medicine. The frame of nursing discipline has been formed. The sub disciplines of them have their own text book and research area such as medical-surgical nursing. Nursing is changing in nursing philosophy, properties of nursing, and working arena. Nursing pays more attention to human rather than disease compared with medicine. The working arenas for nursing include others besides hospitals. The research area outreaches the scope of medicine. The increase of independent disciplines and the decrease of dependent disciplines are a natural process of the development of all the disciplines. If nursing being set as an independent discipline, higher nursing education will be developed quickly as well as the nursing discipline.
Part Three The development of nursing discipline in the United States
Nursing in the United States has been developed under the notion of Nightingale in the 20th century. Before 1850, the focus of clinical nursing was caring. Nursing research came from the intuition and observation on the environment through trial and error without any systematic research. Nursing focused on diseases, which was the same as medicine. Nursing was developed quickly during World War II. But nurses were in great shortage. Clinical nursing specialization promoted graduate nursing education. Physicians needed cooperation with nurses. The nursing practice in the specialized environment of medicine stimulated the specialized nursing knowledge development. During 1950s-1960s, the focus of of nursing research was nursing education, nursing leadership, and nursing management. The first journal of nursing research in the United States was "Nursing Research" that published in 1952. Nursing research promoted the development of nursing theory. This was the theory period. Nursing was separated from medicine and paid attention to both disease and human being. During late 1970s and 1980s, nurses began to reflect on nursing concepts, scope of nursing, and proper strategies for developing nursing knowledge. Therefore, they relied on nursing philosophy to explore what nursing was. Since then, they integrated nursing education, nursing research, and clinical nursing to develop nursing knowledge. Nursing was accepted as a science, clinical practice based on certain body of knowledge, and health care knowledge. The nursing discipline was fully developed.
Part Four Nursing in China after 1949
Nursing in China was influenced by the notion of Florence Nightingale and developed along with the coming of missionaries. The missionaries set up hospitals and nursing schools, which laid the foundation for nursing. The foundation of the School of Nursing, Peking Union Medical College funded by the Chinese medical foundation of the United States was the beginning of the higher nursing education. Many elites graduated from it.
In 1950, the first National Health Conference was held by the Ministry of Health, at which nursing education was designated as a secondary nursing education program (Zhongzhuan) at the high school level without collegiate education. During these nearly thirty years, nursing was placed subordinate to medicine, which dramatically impeded its development. The working form of nursing was functional nursing in order to finish the order of the physicians without any systematic research. During the Great Cultural Revolution, schools of nursing were suspended and nurses became physicians. Everybody could do nursing work without any training. Everything was in a chaos at that time.
After the Great Cultural Revolution, market economy and open-door policies gave nurses opportunities for developing new academic programs and professional structures. Higher nursing education was resumed in 1984. In 1985, there were 11 universities setting up baccalaureate nursing programs. Master degree program and doctor degree program began in 1992 and 2004 respectively. But most of them were academic degree rather than specialty degree. Changes were made in clinical practice during the late 1970s and 1980s. Primary nursing was put forward which focused on mental health and the interrelationship between nurses and patients. Holistic nursing was another work form focused on the whole of the human being that was put forward in the 1990s. Not only was systematic quantitative research implemented, but also qualitative research, which laid the foundation for the development of nursing. During this time period, scholar development was the focus. Nursing should be put as an independent discipline that was the wish of all. At the beginning of the 21st century, the government released a document about the practice and education for clinical nursing specialization. This laid the foundation for the scientific development of nursing.
Part Five Construction of nursing discipline
Nursing history of China and America gave us a hand on the construction of nursing discipline in China. America relied on nursing philosophy that stands for the trend of nursing. The construction of nursing discipline could draw lessons from both China and America. However, we should consider the difference between the two countries and construct nursing discipline with Chinese characteristics.
Nursing education system has been fully developed. Until 2008, there were 63 nursing schools had master degree programs,9 of them had doctoral degree programs. Most of the specialties of graduate education were nursing education, nursing administration, and clinical nursing. These were all academic degree rather than specialty degree. The names of the specialties were not formal and could not reflect the whole discipline. It is necessary to construct the nursing discipline in order to set up the specialties for the graduate education and promote the development of nursing.
We should take root in nursing practice to construct nursing discipline combining the history of nursing. The construction should abide by rules of reflection, science, practice, and systemetic. Classification of nursing discipline should be made according to the object of nursing—nursing practice as well as other disciplines'methods for classification. This way would reflect the development trends of nursing and improve nursing research.
The construction of nursing discipline is not a stable one. It is an open system and can be developed over time. This study is just a pilot one which will be tested by the practice.
合理的学科划分是专业设置的指南,也是学科发展的基础,构建适合我国国情的护理学学科体系需要科学的理论指导与研究。对护理学科体系内部进行分类,是为了科学地反映护理学发展的实际及把握其发展趋势,以加强对护理学的规划和指导,提高护理研究和护理理论的水平,从而更有力地指导护理教育和护理实践。
本研究主要采用文献研究法和历史研究法,确定学科成熟所需要的条件,论证护理学定位为一级学科的必要性和可行性；针对我国目前护理学科发展的现状和我国的国情,对我国的护理学科进行历史性分析,参照美国的护理学科发展历史及现状,探讨学科发展的动因和条件；根据护理学科的特点和学科构建的原则,提出我国护理学学科体系的基本框架及研究生专业设置展望,为我国护理学科的发展及护理学学科体系的构建提供具有指导意义的理论框架。
本文共分五大部分
第一部分：概论
介绍了选题的背景、国内外相关研究现状、研究的意义、相关概念界定。阐述了课题的研究思路和方法,包括文献研究和历史研究,通过综合分析中西方护理学科的发展过程,结合中美两国护理学科发展的动因和条件,在此基础上提出可供我国护理学学科体系构建借鉴的理论框架。
第二部分：我国护理学定位为一级学科的必要性和可行性
护理学科定位为一级学科是高等护理教育发展的需要。护理学科定位于一级学科,有助于护理学科成员强化学科主体意识和主观能动性,推动学科体系的完善和学科理论的发展,形成护理学科的科学的哲学观、思想方法、专业精神,并应用于全面调整护理学各层次教育的培养目标和课程设置,形成具有学科特色的各层次人才的培养方案,以培养具有批判精神和人文精神的护理学科创新性人才,发展护理学科合理的高层次人才队伍。
护理学定位为一级学科也是护理实践发展的需要。护理学在护理理念、工作性质和工作范畴方面已发生了重大的变化。同临床医学相比,护理学日益呈现出其重视人而不仅仅是重视疾病的本质,护士的工作已扩大到了医院以外的场所,护士的工作范畴已超出了临床医学一级学科的范畴。护理实践这些方面的变化,一方面使护理工作者深入进行新问题的研究,需要增加新的知识对问题做出解释和回答,这些知识已不是临床医学所能涵盖的；另一方面,从照护病人的角度,护理实践的独立性与自主性也大大提高,实现了与医生合作照护和负责病人,进一步提升护理质量。
护理学科定位为一级学科也是护理研究的需要。目前护理学科的定位一方面影响了护理学科人才队伍的建设,另一方面不足以引起政府有关部门对护理学科的重视,严重限制了国家、地区和部门对护理学科的投入和资源的分配。
就护理学本身的成熟程度而言,定位为一级学科也有其理论基础,护理学以人、环境、健康和护理作为学科的基本概念框架,已经形成了自己的理论和知识体系,并显现了与医学的区别。目前护理学的学科体系的雏形已经基本形成。随着学科的发展,一级学科逐渐增加,而二级学科逐渐减少,这是学科发展的自然生态。因此,护理学定位为一级学科也是护理学自身发展成熟水平所决定的。
第三部分：美国护理学科发展历史对我国的启示
美国护理学科是在南丁格尔的护理理念中逐渐发展起来的。在1850年以前,护理的重点是提供照护和促进舒适,注重于疾病本身而不是整体的病人。1900s后医学的快速发展对护理学的发展起到了极大的促进作用,医生与护士需要合作,在专业化的医疗环境中的护理实践促进了专科护理知识的发展,护理学科逐渐建立起来。在20世纪50到60年代,美国护理学者意识到了护理科研对学科发展的重要性,开始大力发展护理科学研究。学科的发展开始重视护理的概念和研究范围、学术气氛和学者的发展。70年代末期和80年代,护理学者开始反思有关护理概念、护理范围和发展知识的适当方法,他们借助哲学的探索方法探讨关于护理知识本质的问题,并且用适当的研究方法发展护理知识。在以后的护理学发展过程中,将教育、研究和实践进行整合,发展护理学独有的知识体系是护理学科的重点。研究的重点是护理结局、人和环境的作用及护理哲学,护理学科被充分接纳作为一门科学,护理实践是基于特定知识体系的实践,护理知识被承认作为卫生保健知识的一部分。至此,美国的护理学科已经得到了极大的发展,护理学科的知识体系也已经形成了多层次、多维度和多样性的卫生保健领域的独有的知识体系,包括从护理哲学到各科临床护理,以及个体的与护理有关的生理和心理知识。
第四部分：我国护理学科发展历史借鉴
我国护理学科的发展之初也深受南丁格尔护理理念的影响,19世纪后期,随着教会护理的发展而逐渐发展起来。西方教会人员在中国开办医院和创立护校,为我国护理学科的发展奠定了基础,尤以美国中华医学基金会的资助开办的中国协和医学院护校,开创我国高等护理教育先河,培养了一批优秀的高级护理人才和护理学科的领军人物。
建国后,由于各种政治和经济原因,我国停办高等护理教育,将护理教育定位于中专教育,与美国等西方国家的学术交流中断,这使得我国护理学科的发展陷入了低谷。文革期间,护校停办,护士转行做医生,护理被认为是没有任何知识和技术含量,不需要训练就能做的工作,医院的许多护理工作由家属来完成。中华护理学会在文革期间也停止了所有的学术活动,正常的工作秩序被打乱,这严重阻碍了护理学科的发展。
在文革结束后,市场经济和改革开放政策使得护理学科有机会发展新的教育项目和完善专业结构。我国高等护理教育自80年代中期恢复后逐步走上了正轨。在这个过程中,护理实践也开始改革,70年代末期和80年代引进的责任制护理代替了多年的功能制护理,把人看作不仅是生理的人,而且是心理和社会的人,注重与病人之间的沟通和护患关系。90年代中期,由美籍华人袁剑云博士来华讲学并引进了一种新型的护理工作形式——系统化整体护理,把人看作一个不可分割的整体,更加强调护理对象的生理-心理-社会的完好状态。在科研方面,不但实施了系统化的护理量性研究,还进行了大量的护理质性研究,为发展护理学科的知识体系提供了条件。
第五部分：我国护理学学科体系构建的初步设想
纵观我国和美国护理学科的发展历史可以看出,美国护理学科的发展过程是随着社会的发展和人们对健康的需求而逐渐发展的,由院办护校的建立、大学护理教育、护理研究生教育,到临床护理专业化的发展,护理学科体系逐步完善。我国护理教育已经形成了从中专到博士的多层次护理教育体系,但是学科体系不是很完整,有必要在相关理论指导下构建护理学的学科体系,以指导护理研究生的专业设置,促进护理学科的发展。
对我国护理学科体系的构建,应该植根于我国护理实践,结合国内外护理学科的发展实际,遵循反思性、自主性、科学性、实践性和系统性原则,参考其他学科分类的方法,按照护理学的研究对象——护理活动进行学科分类,按照科学的一般理论,结合教育学科体系的构建方法,分为基础学科、技术和方法学科以及应用学科三大类,以科学地反映护理学发展的实际及预测其发展趋势,提高护理研究的水平,进一步发展护理学科。
当然,护理学科体系的构建不是一成不变的,具有开放性,可以随着教育科学的发展而不断增加新的维度和新的层次。这一学科体系的结构只是探索性研究,是否妥当,还需要实践的检验。
Along with the development of medicine, nursing has its body of knowledge. Nursing education in China has its full system from diploma to doctoral level. However, nursing is still a specialty of medicine, which impeded the development of nursing. The collegiate nursing education was resumed in 1985 after the foundation of China. Therefore, higher degree nurses were in need, especially the faculty of the schools of nursing. The specialties of the graduate nursing education were classified according to the function of nursing such as administration and education in the early time. The clinical and basic specialties were not embodied clearly. How to classify the body of nursing knowledge and set up the specialties of graduate nursing education are important tasks because they are related to the development of nursing discipline and graduate nursing education.
Reasonable classification of the knowledge body of nursing is the guideline for setting up the specialties for the graduate education. The construction of nursing discipline in China needs scientific theory as a guideline. The development of nursing education should adapt to the economic and people's needs. Nursing is a practical discipline. We should put it in the social environment for the classification. The classification of the knowledge body of nursing will guide the knowledge development and theory construction, which will guide the clinical practice. This paper is a historical and literature research, which explored the development of nursing both in China and America. It is expected to have a significant meaning for the construction of nursing discipline in China.
This paper consists of five parts, which are shown as follows:
Part One:Introduction
First, the background, the meaning, the purpose of the study and related study in this area were reviewed and discussed. Second, the scheme and approaches applied in this study were described, which include literature analysis, survey, and historical research.
Part Two:The necessity and possibility of nursing being set as an independent discipline
Nursing has its theoretical basis to be an independent discipline. It has its own concepts frame:human being, environment, health, and nursing as well as its own body of knowledge, which indicates the difference between nursing and medicine. The frame of nursing discipline has been formed. The sub disciplines of them have their own text book and research area such as medical-surgical nursing. Nursing is changing in nursing philosophy, properties of nursing, and working arena. Nursing pays more attention to human rather than disease compared with medicine. The working arenas for nursing include others besides hospitals. The research area outreaches the scope of medicine. The increase of independent disciplines and the decrease of dependent disciplines are a natural process of the development of all the disciplines. If nursing being set as an independent discipline, higher nursing education will be developed quickly as well as the nursing discipline.
Part Three The development of nursing discipline in the United States
Nursing in the United States has been developed under the notion of Nightingale in the 20th century. Before 1850, the focus of clinical nursing was caring. Nursing research came from the intuition and observation on the environment through trial and error without any systematic research. Nursing focused on diseases, which was the same as medicine. Nursing was developed quickly during World War II. But nurses were in great shortage. Clinical nursing specialization promoted graduate nursing education. Physicians needed cooperation with nurses. The nursing practice in the specialized environment of medicine stimulated the specialized nursing knowledge development. During 1950s-1960s, the focus of of nursing research was nursing education, nursing leadership, and nursing management. The first journal of nursing research in the United States was "Nursing Research" that published in 1952. Nursing research promoted the development of nursing theory. This was the theory period. Nursing was separated from medicine and paid attention to both disease and human being. During late 1970s and 1980s, nurses began to reflect on nursing concepts, scope of nursing, and proper strategies for developing nursing knowledge. Therefore, they relied on nursing philosophy to explore what nursing was. Since then, they integrated nursing education, nursing research, and clinical nursing to develop nursing knowledge. Nursing was accepted as a science, clinical practice based on certain body of knowledge, and health care knowledge. The nursing discipline was fully developed.
Part Four Nursing in China after 1949
Nursing in China was influenced by the notion of Florence Nightingale and developed along with the coming of missionaries. The missionaries set up hospitals and nursing schools, which laid the foundation for nursing. The foundation of the School of Nursing, Peking Union Medical College funded by the Chinese medical foundation of the United States was the beginning of the higher nursing education. Many elites graduated from it.
In 1950, the first National Health Conference was held by the Ministry of Health, at which nursing education was designated as a secondary nursing education program (Zhongzhuan) at the high school level without collegiate education. During these nearly thirty years, nursing was placed subordinate to medicine, which dramatically impeded its development. The working form of nursing was functional nursing in order to finish the order of the physicians without any systematic research. During the Great Cultural Revolution, schools of nursing were suspended and nurses became physicians. Everybody could do nursing work without any training. Everything was in a chaos at that time.
After the Great Cultural Revolution, market economy and open-door policies gave nurses opportunities for developing new academic programs and professional structures. Higher nursing education was resumed in 1984. In 1985, there were 11 universities setting up baccalaureate nursing programs. Master degree program and doctor degree program began in 1992 and 2004 respectively. But most of them were academic degree rather than specialty degree. Changes were made in clinical practice during the late 1970s and 1980s. Primary nursing was put forward which focused on mental health and the interrelationship between nurses and patients. Holistic nursing was another work form focused on the whole of the human being that was put forward in the 1990s. Not only was systematic quantitative research implemented, but also qualitative research, which laid the foundation for the development of nursing. During this time period, scholar development was the focus. Nursing should be put as an independent discipline that was the wish of all. At the beginning of the 21st century, the government released a document about the practice and education for clinical nursing specialization. This laid the foundation for the scientific development of nursing.
Part Five Construction of nursing discipline
Nursing history of China and America gave us a hand on the construction of nursing discipline in China. America relied on nursing philosophy that stands for the trend of nursing. The construction of nursing discipline could draw lessons from both China and America. However, we should consider the difference between the two countries and construct nursing discipline with Chinese characteristics.
Nursing education system has been fully developed. Until 2008, there were 63 nursing schools had master degree programs,9 of them had doctoral degree programs. Most of the specialties of graduate education were nursing education, nursing administration, and clinical nursing. These were all academic degree rather than specialty degree. The names of the specialties were not formal and could not reflect the whole discipline. It is necessary to construct the nursing discipline in order to set up the specialties for the graduate education and promote the development of nursing.
We should take root in nursing practice to construct nursing discipline combining the history of nursing. The construction should abide by rules of reflection, science, practice, and systemetic. Classification of nursing discipline should be made according to the object of nursing—nursing practice as well as other disciplines'methods for classification. This way would reflect the development trends of nursing and improve nursing research.
The construction of nursing discipline is not a stable one. It is an open system and can be developed over time. This study is just a pilot one which will be tested by the practice.
引文
*本课题为中国高等教育学会立项课题,课题编号：06AIJ0770142。作者简介：李静,女,硕士,讲师,第二军医大学护理学院博士在读
*通讯作者：姜安丽,女,教授,博士研究生导师,研究方向：护理教育
1. Andrew S Oldnall. Nursing as an emerging academic discipline, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 1995,21 (3):605-12
2. Yvonne Hayne. The current status and future significance of nursing as a discipline. Journal of advanced nursing,1992,17(1):104-107
3. Pang, Samantha M.C., Arthur, David Gordon, Wong, Thomas K.S. Drawing a Qualitative Distinction of Caring Practices in a Professional Context:The Case of Chinese Nursing. Holistic Nursing Practice,2000,15(1):22-31
4. Christopher Maggs. A history of nursing:a history of caring? Journal of advanced nursing, 1996,23(3):630-635
5. Sharon Moore. Thoughts on the discipline of nursing as we approach the year 2000. Journal of Advanced Nursing,1990,15 (7):825-828
6. Deborah Thoun Northrup, Coby L. Tschanz, Valerie G. Olynyk, et al. Nursing:Whose Discipline Is It Anyway? Nursing science quarterly,2004,17(1):55-62
7. Maureen C Shaw. The discipline of nursing:historical roots, current perspectives, future directions. Journal of advanced nursing,1993,18 (2):1651-1656
8.[英]南丁格尔著.庞洵译.护理札记.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2004：28
9. Sandra Sterling Reynolds, B. A. The role of rhetoric in the conception of primary healthcare giver. An unpublished dissertation of Texas Woman's University, Denton,2002: 81
10. Joseph T. Catalano. Nursing Now:Today's Issues, Tomorrow's Trends.3rd edition. Philadelphia: F. A. DAVIS COMPANY,2003:5
11.美国学科专业目录http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/cip2000/
12.英国学科专业目录http://www.ucas.ac.uk/website/documents/JACS_coding/jacsclassl.pdf
13.澳大利亚学科专业目录http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@nsf/
14.加拿大Alberta大学护理学院：http://www.registrar.ualberta.ca/calendar/GradStudies-and-Research/Programs/195.47.html
15.香港中文大学护理学院http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/med/nur/nursing/prog_grad 1.html
16.胡建华.现代中国大学制度的原点.南京：南京师范大学出版社,2001：178
17.姜安丽.护理学基础.北京：人民卫生出版社,2006：15
18.卫生部全国第二届护理工作大会.中国护理事业发展规划纲要(2005—2010年)2005,8.
19.袁长蓉,王志红,陈国良.美国护理研究生培养模式的现状与发展.解放军护理杂志,2003,20(5)：42-44.
20. Gwen Sherwood,刘华平,徐丽华.发展以角色为基础的护理研究生教育.中华护理教育,2005,2(1)：29-32.
21.吴瑛.护理学向科学迈进的沿革——介绍美国护理科学探索过程.中国护理管理,2003,13(4)：12-17
[1]蒋海兰,曾玉华.我国护理教育的改革现状及发展趋势.现代护理,2005,11(24)：2090-2092
[2]邱卫红.护理专业课程设置改革对人体解剖学教学的影响与对策.解剖学研究,2009,31(5)：399-400
[3]何朝珠,李鸿艳,衣玉丽,等.国内外护理学硕士研究生培养目标比较研究.中国高等医学教育,2009,(1)：46-55
[4]汪建,李峥,许柯.我国护理学硕士研究生招生情况分析与建议.护理管理杂志,2007,7(11)：4-6
[5]李军.地方高校研究生教育发展路向.中国高等教育杂志,2008,(10)：17
[6]颜巧元,辛建英.护理期刊基金论文比偏低的思考.编辑学报,2004,16(5)：374-375
[7]刘均娥.首都医科大学护理学院喜获两项国家自然科学基金立项.中华护理教育,2008,5(6)：245
[8]国务院学位委员会办公室.学位与研究生教育文件汇编.北京：高等教育出版社,1999,12,62
[9]纪宝成.中国大学学科专业设置研究.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006,1-164
[10]辞海编纂委员会.辞海.上海：上海辞书出版社,1980,29-1126
[11]丁雅娴.学科分类研究与应用.北京：中国标准出版社,1994,38
[12]现代汉语词典.北京：商务印书馆,1991,1518
[13]邬沧萍.人口学学科体系研究.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006：21
[14]Andrew S Oldnall. Nursing as an emerging academic discipline. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 1995,21 (3):605-12
[15]Becher T. Academic Tribes and Territories Intellectual Enquiry and the Cultures of Disciplines. The Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University, Buckingham:12
[16]King A.R.& Brownell J. The Curriculum and the Discipline of Knowledge. John Wiley, New York,1966:16
[17]Yvonne Hayne. The current status and future significance of nursing as a discipline. Journal of advanced nursing,1992,17(1):104-107
[18]Pang, Samantha M.C., Arthur, David Gordon, Wong, Thomas K.S. Drawing a Qualitative Distinction of Caring Practices in a Professional Context:The Case of Chinese Nursing. Holistic Nursing Practice,2000,15(1):22-31
[19]Meleis A.I.Theoretical nursing:today's challenges, tomorrow's bridges. Nursing Papers, 1987,5(2):49-63
[20]陈波.社会科学方法论.北京：中国人民大学出版社,1989,36-37
[21]陈燮君.学科学导论.上海：上海三联书店,1991,229-231
[22]唐莹,瞿葆奎.教育科学分类：问题与框架.华东师范大学学报(教育科学版),1993(2)：17-23
[23]刘仲林.跨学科学导论.杭州：浙江教育出版社,1990,34-38
[24]国务院学位委员会.《学位授予和人才培养学科目录设置与管理办法》的通知.http://www. moe. edu. cn/edoas/websitel8/67/info1237880446537867. htm,2009
[25]高虹.对构建护理学学科群的思考.南方护理学报,2005,12(3)：76—77
[26]单伟颖,安文忠,梁迎辉,等.我国护理学学科定位的研究.护士进修杂志,2006,21(10)：871—4
[27]汪玲,邹和建,熊思东,等.国外医学门类学科专业设置及其启示.中华医学教育杂志,2006,26(4)：90—93
[28]裴娣娜.教育研究方法导论.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2006,136
[29]郑修霞.护理教育学概论.北京：北京医科大学出版社,2002,33
[30]Basil S. Georgopoulos., Luther Christman. Effects of clinical nursing specialization. Lewiston, New York:The Edwin Mellen Press,1990,62
[31]姜安丽,王建荣,朱京慈,等.护理学科的发展和展望.解放军护理杂志,2005,22(9)：1-4
[32]李化树.论大学学科建设.教育研究,2006,(4)：85-88
[33]杜以德,韩钟文,何爱霞,等.中国成人教育学科体系结构及其分类研究.北京：高等教育出版社,2006,4
[34]姜安丽,石琴.新编护理学基础.北京：高等教育出版社,1999：8-9
[35]SCHAF ER P J. Philosophic analysis of a theory of clinical nursing. Matern Child Nursing Journal, 1987,16(4):289-368
[36]庹炎.慢性腰背痛患者认知-情感应对、自我和谐与适应水平关系的研究：[博士学位论文].上海：第二军医大学,2007
[37]通风的效果对C02和细菌浓度及病人状况的影响.中华护理杂志,1964,6：364-366
[38]张俐,王仙园,冯正直,等.护士心理素质概念和成分的质性与量性研究.护理学杂志,2003,18(5)： 406-407
[39]梅祖懿.统计方法在护理科研工作中的应用.中华护理杂志,1979,2：89-90
[40]梅祖懿.统计方法在护理科研工作中的应用.中华护理杂志,1979,3：137-9
[41]梅祖懿.统计方法在护理科研工作中的应用.中华护理杂志,1979,4：182-4
[42]梅祖懿.统计方法在护理科研工作中的应用.中华护理杂志,1979,5：236-7
[43]汪建,李峥,许柯.我国护理学硕士研究生招生情况分析与建议.护理管理杂志,2007,7(11)：4-6
[44]黎贵,李峥.我国2008届护理专业硕士毕业生择业意向的研究.护理管理杂志,2009,9(1)：2-4
[45]卫生部.医院管理评价指南.http://www.moh.gov.cn/uploadfile/200578101116682.doc,2005
[46]张爱琴,方颖,曹凤,等.护理人力资源配置和使用中的问题及对策.解放军护理杂志,2009,26(6B)：60-62
[47]Barbara Sheer, Frances Kam Yuet Wong. The Development of Advanced Nursing Practice Globally. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, Third Quarter 2008,40(3):204-211
[48]梁涛,李扬,沈宁,等.护理课程设置改革中教学内容、安排、方法的改革.中华护理杂志,2000,35(10)：616-619
[49]李钢,汤仲胜.我国交叉学科发展现状与趋势研究.科学与科学技术管理,2000,6(6)：45-49
[50]Christy,T. Portrait of a leader:M. Adelaide Nutting. Nursing Outlook, 1969,17(1):20-24
[51]Palmer. Editorial. American Journal of Nursing,1900,1 (1):64
[52]Kay Kittrell Chitty. Professional Nursing:Concepts & Challenges.3rd Edition. Philadelphia: W.B.Sauders Company.2001,8-53
[53]Rosenberg, C.E. The care of strangers. New York:Basic Books,1987,344
[54]Young,A., Taylor,S.G,& Mclaughlin-Renpenning, K. Connections. Nursing Research, Theory and Practice, Mosby,2001,3-16
[55]Kalisch, P., and Kalisch B. The advance of American nursing.3rd Edition. Boston:Little Brown, 1995,20-37
[56]National League for Nursing. Nursing datasource. Volume Ⅱ. Graduate education in nursing: Advanced practice nursing. Sudbury, Mass.:NLN Press and Jones and Bartlett,1997,12
[57]Parietti, E. The development of doctoral education in nursing:A historical overview. In J. Allen (Ed.), Consumer's guide to doctoral degree programs in nursing. New York:National League for Nursing,1990,1532
[58]National League for Nursing, Center for Research in Nursing Education and Community Health. Annual guide to graduate nursing education 1997. Sudbury, Mass.:NLN Press and Jones and Bartlett, 1997a,12
[59]Yong, A. The women and the crisis:Women of the north in the Civil War, New York:McDowell, Oblensky,1959,134
[60]Rosemary Stevens. American medicine and the public interests-A history of specialization.2nd edition. Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1998,78
[61]DeWitt, K. Specialties in Nursing. American Journal of Nursing,1900,1(1):14-17
[62]Dock L.L., and Stewart, I. M.. A short history of nursing. New York:Putnam,1920,27
[63]New York State Nurses Association. Remarks made by Lavinia Dock. New York:New York State Nurses Association,1903,2
[64]Pletsch, P.K.. Mary Breckinridge:A pioneer who made her mark. American Journal of Nursing,81(12):2188-2190
[65]Fitzpatrick, M.L.. Nursing and the Great Depression. American Journal of Nursing,75(12): 2188-2190
[66]Julie Fairman. Context and Contingency in the Post World War Ⅱ Nursing Scholarship in the United States. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, First Quarter,2008,40(1):4-11
[67]Joan E. Lynaugh, Barbara L. Brush. American Nursing:From Hospitals to Health Systems. Malden: Blackwell Publishers Ltd,1998,27-55
[68]Patricia S.A. Sparacino, Diane M. Cooper, Pamela A. Minarik. The clinical nursespecialist: Implementation and Impact. Norwalk:Appleton and Lange,1990,5
[69]Lewis, Judith A. Advanced Practice in Maternal/Child Nursing:Current Status, and Thoughts About the Future. The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing,2000, November/December,25(6): 327-330
[70]Agnes H. Geoghegan. The need to know more.http://include.nurse.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=2006603130385,2006
[71]ANA NP-63 File. Nursing, a policy statement. Kansas City:American Nurses' Association,1980, 21
[72]Afaf Ibrahim Meleis. Theoretical Nursing:Development & Progress.3rd Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott,1997,25-31
[73]Esther Lucile Brown. Nursing for the future—A report prepared for the National Nursing Council. New York:WM.F.FELL.CO.,1948,8
[74]Maureen C Shaw. The discipline of nursing:historical roots, current perspectives, future directions. Journal of Advanced Nursing,1993,18,1651-1656
[75]Alligood, Martha Raile. The nature of knowledge needed for nursing practice. In M.R. Alligood & A.M.Tothey (Eds). Nursing theory:Utilization & Application.2nd edition. Mosby,2003,3-12
[76]王益锵.中国护理发展史.北京：中国医药科技出版社,1999,70-87,323,335,336,425
[77]聂毓禅.话说老协和--协和医学院护士学校的变迁.北京：中国文史出版社,1987,204
[78]林菊英,王桂英,袁雪.关于恢复高等护理教育的座谈摘要.中华护理杂志,1984,19(3)：181-183
[79]林菊英.回顾与展望.中国实用护理杂志,1986,2(5)：1-2
[80]Pang, S. M.. Nursing Ethics in Modern China-Conflicting Values and Competing Role Requirements. New York:Rodopi B. V.2003,31
[81]林菊英.美国护理介绍.中华护理杂志,1981,17(1)：46-8
[82]卫生部.卫生部关于护理队伍建设的五年规划(1986年-1990年).http://www.medste.gd.cn/Html/Article/165558.html,1986
[83]卫生部.护士管理条例.http://www. moh. gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/mohzcfgs/s3576/200804/29418. ht m,1993
[84]林菊英.第十九届全国护理会议.中华护理杂志,1983,18(5)：266-272
[85]消息.中华护理杂志,1991,26(1)：5
[86]消息.中华护理杂志,1992,27(1)：2-5
[87]于丽梅.消息.中华护理杂志,1991,26(3)：120
[88]曹竹平.关于护理教育的讨论.中华护理杂志,1981,16(3)：98-102
[89]何怡,陈幕贞.关于培养临床护理专家的讨论.中华护理杂志,1959,(5)：181-3
[90]吴燕霓.护理需要专业化.中华护理杂志,1983,(2)：105-6
[91]卫生部. 中国护理发展规划纲要 (2005—2010).http://www. moh. gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/mohyzs/s3593/200804/18620. htm. ,2005
[92]国务院.护士条例.http://www. gov. cn/zwgk/2008-02/04/content_882178. htm.,2008
[93]中央政府. 国务院办公室关于硕士学位教育的说明.http://www. gov. cn/gzdt/2009-03/02/content_1248607. htm,2009
[94]护理的未来和特点.1956,3(6)：245-247
[95]余翔.一位优秀的公共卫生护士.中华护理杂志,1957,4(1)：7-8
[96]冰心.向卫生保健工作者致敬.中华护理杂志,1954,1(1)：2-5
[97]徐宝庆.病人心理护理的经验教训.中华护理杂志,1959,6(6)：223-4
[98]翁巾华,吴霞.住院病人心理问题的调查.中华护理杂志,1984,19(3)：157-160
[99]刘晓虹.100例住院病人心理需求的调查.中华护理杂志,1989,24(4)：221-2
[100]陈淑坚.医院妇产科的健康教育.中华护理杂志,1955,2(5)：235-7
[101]张月华.护士的前途应当是大夫.中华护理杂志,1956,3(6)：250-251
[102]林菊英.我不同意护士的发展前途是当大夫.中华护理杂志,1956,3(8)：252
[103]李玫.护士决不是一个过渡职业.中华护理杂志,1956,3(6)：253
[104]全力做好社会主义医疗工作.中华护理杂志,1965,10(4)：195
[105]消息.中华护理杂志,1966,11(1)：56-7
[106]张爱诚.护理教育.中华护理杂志,1956,3(6)：256-8
[107]王琇瑛.护理教育不应该定位在中专.中华护理杂志,1956,3(6)：254-6
[108]郭燕红.建立临床护理专家体系以提高护理.中华护理杂志,2004,39(12)：952-3
[109]李俊欣,刘焕巧.自理理论和健康指导联合应用于心脏围手术期护理.河北职工医学院学报,2003,20(3)：31-32
[110]郭琳华.Leininger跨文化护理理论的评价与应用.内蒙古医学杂志,2004,36(3)：204-206
[111]保颖怡,赵国琴,潘杰.Rogers护理理论的应用.护理研究,2004,18(9)：1511-1513
[112]张君娥,尤黎明,张美芬.护理理论与实践：现实中的差距.中华护理杂志,2004,39(6)：432-434
[113]殷磊.中国护理的发展需要原创性护理理论指导.中华护理杂志,2005,40(4)：315-317
[114]李峥.现代护理学研究方法进展.2009年全国研究生导师师资培训班,2009.11
[115]刘晓峰.论高等学校的学科结构与专业设置.河南中医学院学报,2005,20(1)：69-71
[116]朱海利,陈洪华,张银华,等.我国护理学硕士研究生教育存在的问题及对策.护理学杂志,2006,21(11)：64-66
[117]姜安丽.Fundamentals of Nursing·护理学基础.北京：人民卫生出版社,2005,297
[118]E.拉兹洛.用系统论的观点看世界：科学新发展的自然哲学.北京：中国社会科学出版社,1985,13
[119]杨连生.科学学.北京：科学技术文献出版社,1988,3-21
[120](英)J.D.贝尔纳,L.A.马凯.在通向科学学的道路上.北京：科学出版社,1980,14
[121]拉契科夫.科学学：问题结构基本原理(韩秉成,陈益升,倪星源,译).北京：科学出版社,1984,15
[122]王通讯.宏观人才学.北京：中国社会科学出版社,2001,12
[123]白玫,沈宁.试述护理人才的内涵.中华护理杂志,2003,38(10)：828-830
[124]百度百科.人才结构.http://baike.baidu. com/view/992308. html?goodTagLemma,2009
[125]周泉兴.高等教育质量标准：特征、价值取向及结构体系.江苏高教,2004,(3)：8-10
[126]郝德永.课程研制方法论.北京：教育科学出版社,2000,16
[127]黑格尔.小逻辑.北京：商务印书馆,1980,39
[128]刘少鹏,张艳芬,罗满.我国护理学硕士研究生专业设置方向的分析.护理学杂志,2009,24(6)外科版：77-78
[129]沃勒斯坦.开放社会科学：重建社会科学报告书.北京：生活读书新知三联书店,1997,53
[130]甄橙.医学与护理学发展史.北京：北京大学医学出版社,2008,249
[131]爱因斯坦.爱因斯坦文集(第一卷).北京：商务印书馆.1979,235
[132]J.D.贝尔纳.历史上的科学.北京：科学出版社,1959,684-6
[133]黑格尔.精神现象学.北京：商务印书馆,1979,35
[134]路德维希·冯·贝塔郎菲.生命问题——现代生物学思想评价.北京：商务印书馆,1999,203
[135]姜安丽.护理理论.北京：人民卫生出版社,2009,12
[136]马骥雄.外国教育史略.北京：人民教育出版社,1991,397-9
[137]叶澜.关于加强教育科学“自我意识”的思考.华东师范大学学报(教育科学版),1987,3
[138]陈峰.试论教育科学的功能.湖南师大社会科学学报.1990,(6)：12-14
[139]大河内一男.教育学的理论问题.北京：教育科学出版社,1984,194
[140]吴康宁.对我国教育理论发展的思考.教育研究,1992,(12)：21-24
[141]毛祖桓.教育学科体系的结构研究.北京：中央民族大学出版社,1999,57
[142]汪道鑫.护理伦理学.南昌：江西科学出版社,2008,4
[143]任小红.护理美学.北京：中国医药科技出版社,2005,53
[144]王雯,刘新芝.护理社会学.北京：北京医科大学、中国协和医科大学联合出版社,2001,4
[145]刘则杨.护理经济学概论.北京：中国科技出版社：43-44
[146]霍孝蓉.实用护理人文学.南京：东南大学出版社,2006,110-113
[147]于浩.医学统计学.北京：中国统计出版社,2005,1
[148]肖顺贞.护理研究.北京：人民卫生出版社,1998,4
[149]护理信息学http://wiki. miforum. net/index. php/%E6%8A%A4%E7%90%86%E4%BF%Al%E6%81%AF%E5%AD%A6
[150]姜安丽.护理学基础.北京：人民卫生出版社,2006,10
[151]李小妹.护理学导论.北京：人民卫生出版社,2006,12
[152]高建群,熊红霞.内科护理学.南昌：江西科学技术出版社,2008,1
[153]杨珍杰,郭茂珍.外科护理学.武汉：湖北科学技术出版社,2008,1
[154]李和.妇产科护理学.南昌：江西科学技术出版社,2008,1
[155]张丽莉.儿科护理学.郑州：郑州大学出版社,2007,1
[156]丁波.精神科护理学.南昌：江西科学技术出版社,2007,1
[157]张惠兰,陈荣秀.肿瘤护理学.天津：天津科技出版社,2002,1
[158]邹立人.社区护理学.杭州：浙江科技出版社,2006,4
[159]王庸晋,王克芳.危重症护理学.北京：人民军医出版社,2004,2-3
[160]敖薪.急救护理学.北京：高等教育出版社,2008,1-6
[161]化前珍.老年护理学.北京：人民卫生出版社,2006,5
[162]赵美玉.护理管理学.郑州：郑州大学出版社,2004,46-48
[163]刘国珍.护理心理学.南昌：江西科学技术出版社,2008,5
[164]姜安丽,李树贞.护理教育学.北京：高等教育出版社,2002,3
[165]郭学军,周梅.康复护理学.郑州：郑州大学出版社,2008,7-8
[166]黄津芳,刘玉莹.护理健康教育学.北京：科学技术文献出版社,2000,1-2
[167]关于设立护理学一级学科的建议.复旦大学未发表调查报告,2007
*通讯作者：姜安丽,女,教授,博士研究生导师,研究方向：护理教育
1. Andrew S Oldnall. Nursing as an emerging academic discipline, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 1995,21 (3):605-12
2. Yvonne Hayne. The current status and future significance of nursing as a discipline. Journal of advanced nursing,1992,17(1):104-107
3. Pang, Samantha M.C., Arthur, David Gordon, Wong, Thomas K.S. Drawing a Qualitative Distinction of Caring Practices in a Professional Context:The Case of Chinese Nursing. Holistic Nursing Practice,2000,15(1):22-31
4. Christopher Maggs. A history of nursing:a history of caring? Journal of advanced nursing, 1996,23(3):630-635
5. Sharon Moore. Thoughts on the discipline of nursing as we approach the year 2000. Journal of Advanced Nursing,1990,15 (7):825-828
6. Deborah Thoun Northrup, Coby L. Tschanz, Valerie G. Olynyk, et al. Nursing:Whose Discipline Is It Anyway? Nursing science quarterly,2004,17(1):55-62
7. Maureen C Shaw. The discipline of nursing:historical roots, current perspectives, future directions. Journal of advanced nursing,1993,18 (2):1651-1656
8.[英]南丁格尔著.庞洵译.护理札记.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2004：28
9. Sandra Sterling Reynolds, B. A. The role of rhetoric in the conception of primary healthcare giver. An unpublished dissertation of Texas Woman's University, Denton,2002: 81
10. Joseph T. Catalano. Nursing Now:Today's Issues, Tomorrow's Trends.3rd edition. Philadelphia: F. A. DAVIS COMPANY,2003:5
11.美国学科专业目录http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/cip2000/
12.英国学科专业目录http://www.ucas.ac.uk/website/documents/JACS_coding/jacsclassl.pdf
13.澳大利亚学科专业目录http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@nsf/
14.加拿大Alberta大学护理学院：http://www.registrar.ualberta.ca/calendar/GradStudies-and-Research/Programs/195.47.html
15.香港中文大学护理学院http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/med/nur/nursing/prog_grad 1.html
16.胡建华.现代中国大学制度的原点.南京：南京师范大学出版社,2001：178
17.姜安丽.护理学基础.北京：人民卫生出版社,2006：15
18.卫生部全国第二届护理工作大会.中国护理事业发展规划纲要(2005—2010年)2005,8.
19.袁长蓉,王志红,陈国良.美国护理研究生培养模式的现状与发展.解放军护理杂志,2003,20(5)：42-44.
20. Gwen Sherwood,刘华平,徐丽华.发展以角色为基础的护理研究生教育.中华护理教育,2005,2(1)：29-32.
21.吴瑛.护理学向科学迈进的沿革——介绍美国护理科学探索过程.中国护理管理,2003,13(4)：12-17
[1]蒋海兰,曾玉华.我国护理教育的改革现状及发展趋势.现代护理,2005,11(24)：2090-2092
[2]邱卫红.护理专业课程设置改革对人体解剖学教学的影响与对策.解剖学研究,2009,31(5)：399-400
[3]何朝珠,李鸿艳,衣玉丽,等.国内外护理学硕士研究生培养目标比较研究.中国高等医学教育,2009,(1)：46-55
[4]汪建,李峥,许柯.我国护理学硕士研究生招生情况分析与建议.护理管理杂志,2007,7(11)：4-6
[5]李军.地方高校研究生教育发展路向.中国高等教育杂志,2008,(10)：17
[6]颜巧元,辛建英.护理期刊基金论文比偏低的思考.编辑学报,2004,16(5)：374-375
[7]刘均娥.首都医科大学护理学院喜获两项国家自然科学基金立项.中华护理教育,2008,5(6)：245
[8]国务院学位委员会办公室.学位与研究生教育文件汇编.北京：高等教育出版社,1999,12,62
[9]纪宝成.中国大学学科专业设置研究.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006,1-164
[10]辞海编纂委员会.辞海.上海：上海辞书出版社,1980,29-1126
[11]丁雅娴.学科分类研究与应用.北京：中国标准出版社,1994,38
[12]现代汉语词典.北京：商务印书馆,1991,1518
[13]邬沧萍.人口学学科体系研究.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006：21
[14]Andrew S Oldnall. Nursing as an emerging academic discipline. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 1995,21 (3):605-12
[15]Becher T. Academic Tribes and Territories Intellectual Enquiry and the Cultures of Disciplines. The Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University, Buckingham:12
[16]King A.R.& Brownell J. The Curriculum and the Discipline of Knowledge. John Wiley, New York,1966:16
[17]Yvonne Hayne. The current status and future significance of nursing as a discipline. Journal of advanced nursing,1992,17(1):104-107
[18]Pang, Samantha M.C., Arthur, David Gordon, Wong, Thomas K.S. Drawing a Qualitative Distinction of Caring Practices in a Professional Context:The Case of Chinese Nursing. Holistic Nursing Practice,2000,15(1):22-31
[19]Meleis A.I.Theoretical nursing:today's challenges, tomorrow's bridges. Nursing Papers, 1987,5(2):49-63
[20]陈波.社会科学方法论.北京：中国人民大学出版社,1989,36-37
[21]陈燮君.学科学导论.上海：上海三联书店,1991,229-231
[22]唐莹,瞿葆奎.教育科学分类：问题与框架.华东师范大学学报(教育科学版),1993(2)：17-23
[23]刘仲林.跨学科学导论.杭州：浙江教育出版社,1990,34-38
[24]国务院学位委员会.《学位授予和人才培养学科目录设置与管理办法》的通知.http://www. moe. edu. cn/edoas/websitel8/67/info1237880446537867. htm,2009
[25]高虹.对构建护理学学科群的思考.南方护理学报,2005,12(3)：76—77
[26]单伟颖,安文忠,梁迎辉,等.我国护理学学科定位的研究.护士进修杂志,2006,21(10)：871—4
[27]汪玲,邹和建,熊思东,等.国外医学门类学科专业设置及其启示.中华医学教育杂志,2006,26(4)：90—93
[28]裴娣娜.教育研究方法导论.合肥：安徽教育出版社,2006,136
[29]郑修霞.护理教育学概论.北京：北京医科大学出版社,2002,33
[30]Basil S. Georgopoulos., Luther Christman. Effects of clinical nursing specialization. Lewiston, New York:The Edwin Mellen Press,1990,62
[31]姜安丽,王建荣,朱京慈,等.护理学科的发展和展望.解放军护理杂志,2005,22(9)：1-4
[32]李化树.论大学学科建设.教育研究,2006,(4)：85-88
[33]杜以德,韩钟文,何爱霞,等.中国成人教育学科体系结构及其分类研究.北京：高等教育出版社,2006,4
[34]姜安丽,石琴.新编护理学基础.北京：高等教育出版社,1999：8-9
[35]SCHAF ER P J. Philosophic analysis of a theory of clinical nursing. Matern Child Nursing Journal, 1987,16(4):289-368
[36]庹炎.慢性腰背痛患者认知-情感应对、自我和谐与适应水平关系的研究：[博士学位论文].上海：第二军医大学,2007
[37]通风的效果对C02和细菌浓度及病人状况的影响.中华护理杂志,1964,6：364-366
[38]张俐,王仙园,冯正直,等.护士心理素质概念和成分的质性与量性研究.护理学杂志,2003,18(5)： 406-407
[39]梅祖懿.统计方法在护理科研工作中的应用.中华护理杂志,1979,2：89-90
[40]梅祖懿.统计方法在护理科研工作中的应用.中华护理杂志,1979,3：137-9
[41]梅祖懿.统计方法在护理科研工作中的应用.中华护理杂志,1979,4：182-4
[42]梅祖懿.统计方法在护理科研工作中的应用.中华护理杂志,1979,5：236-7
[43]汪建,李峥,许柯.我国护理学硕士研究生招生情况分析与建议.护理管理杂志,2007,7(11)：4-6
[44]黎贵,李峥.我国2008届护理专业硕士毕业生择业意向的研究.护理管理杂志,2009,9(1)：2-4
[45]卫生部.医院管理评价指南.http://www.moh.gov.cn/uploadfile/200578101116682.doc,2005
[46]张爱琴,方颖,曹凤,等.护理人力资源配置和使用中的问题及对策.解放军护理杂志,2009,26(6B)：60-62
[47]Barbara Sheer, Frances Kam Yuet Wong. The Development of Advanced Nursing Practice Globally. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, Third Quarter 2008,40(3):204-211
[48]梁涛,李扬,沈宁,等.护理课程设置改革中教学内容、安排、方法的改革.中华护理杂志,2000,35(10)：616-619
[49]李钢,汤仲胜.我国交叉学科发展现状与趋势研究.科学与科学技术管理,2000,6(6)：45-49
[50]Christy,T. Portrait of a leader:M. Adelaide Nutting. Nursing Outlook, 1969,17(1):20-24
[51]Palmer. Editorial. American Journal of Nursing,1900,1 (1):64
[52]Kay Kittrell Chitty. Professional Nursing:Concepts & Challenges.3rd Edition. Philadelphia: W.B.Sauders Company.2001,8-53
[53]Rosenberg, C.E. The care of strangers. New York:Basic Books,1987,344
[54]Young,A., Taylor,S.G,& Mclaughlin-Renpenning, K. Connections. Nursing Research, Theory and Practice, Mosby,2001,3-16
[55]Kalisch, P., and Kalisch B. The advance of American nursing.3rd Edition. Boston:Little Brown, 1995,20-37
[56]National League for Nursing. Nursing datasource. Volume Ⅱ. Graduate education in nursing: Advanced practice nursing. Sudbury, Mass.:NLN Press and Jones and Bartlett,1997,12
[57]Parietti, E. The development of doctoral education in nursing:A historical overview. In J. Allen (Ed.), Consumer's guide to doctoral degree programs in nursing. New York:National League for Nursing,1990,1532
[58]National League for Nursing, Center for Research in Nursing Education and Community Health. Annual guide to graduate nursing education 1997. Sudbury, Mass.:NLN Press and Jones and Bartlett, 1997a,12
[59]Yong, A. The women and the crisis:Women of the north in the Civil War, New York:McDowell, Oblensky,1959,134
[60]Rosemary Stevens. American medicine and the public interests-A history of specialization.2nd edition. Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1998,78
[61]DeWitt, K. Specialties in Nursing. American Journal of Nursing,1900,1(1):14-17
[62]Dock L.L., and Stewart, I. M.. A short history of nursing. New York:Putnam,1920,27
[63]New York State Nurses Association. Remarks made by Lavinia Dock. New York:New York State Nurses Association,1903,2
[64]Pletsch, P.K.. Mary Breckinridge:A pioneer who made her mark. American Journal of Nursing,81(12):2188-2190
[65]Fitzpatrick, M.L.. Nursing and the Great Depression. American Journal of Nursing,75(12): 2188-2190
[66]Julie Fairman. Context and Contingency in the Post World War Ⅱ Nursing Scholarship in the United States. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, First Quarter,2008,40(1):4-11
[67]Joan E. Lynaugh, Barbara L. Brush. American Nursing:From Hospitals to Health Systems. Malden: Blackwell Publishers Ltd,1998,27-55
[68]Patricia S.A. Sparacino, Diane M. Cooper, Pamela A. Minarik. The clinical nursespecialist: Implementation and Impact. Norwalk:Appleton and Lange,1990,5
[69]Lewis, Judith A. Advanced Practice in Maternal/Child Nursing:Current Status, and Thoughts About the Future. The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing,2000, November/December,25(6): 327-330
[70]Agnes H. Geoghegan. The need to know more.http://include.nurse.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=2006603130385,2006
[71]ANA NP-63 File. Nursing, a policy statement. Kansas City:American Nurses' Association,1980, 21
[72]Afaf Ibrahim Meleis. Theoretical Nursing:Development & Progress.3rd Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott,1997,25-31
[73]Esther Lucile Brown. Nursing for the future—A report prepared for the National Nursing Council. New York:WM.F.FELL.CO.,1948,8
[74]Maureen C Shaw. The discipline of nursing:historical roots, current perspectives, future directions. Journal of Advanced Nursing,1993,18,1651-1656
[75]Alligood, Martha Raile. The nature of knowledge needed for nursing practice. In M.R. Alligood & A.M.Tothey (Eds). Nursing theory:Utilization & Application.2nd edition. Mosby,2003,3-12
[76]王益锵.中国护理发展史.北京：中国医药科技出版社,1999,70-87,323,335,336,425
[77]聂毓禅.话说老协和--协和医学院护士学校的变迁.北京：中国文史出版社,1987,204
[78]林菊英,王桂英,袁雪.关于恢复高等护理教育的座谈摘要.中华护理杂志,1984,19(3)：181-183
[79]林菊英.回顾与展望.中国实用护理杂志,1986,2(5)：1-2
[80]Pang, S. M.. Nursing Ethics in Modern China-Conflicting Values and Competing Role Requirements. New York:Rodopi B. V.2003,31
[81]林菊英.美国护理介绍.中华护理杂志,1981,17(1)：46-8
[82]卫生部.卫生部关于护理队伍建设的五年规划(1986年-1990年).http://www.medste.gd.cn/Html/Article/165558.html,1986
[83]卫生部.护士管理条例.http://www. moh. gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/mohzcfgs/s3576/200804/29418. ht m,1993
[84]林菊英.第十九届全国护理会议.中华护理杂志,1983,18(5)：266-272
[85]消息.中华护理杂志,1991,26(1)：5
[86]消息.中华护理杂志,1992,27(1)：2-5
[87]于丽梅.消息.中华护理杂志,1991,26(3)：120
[88]曹竹平.关于护理教育的讨论.中华护理杂志,1981,16(3)：98-102
[89]何怡,陈幕贞.关于培养临床护理专家的讨论.中华护理杂志,1959,(5)：181-3
[90]吴燕霓.护理需要专业化.中华护理杂志,1983,(2)：105-6
[91]卫生部. 中国护理发展规划纲要 (2005—2010).http://www. moh. gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/mohyzs/s3593/200804/18620. htm. ,2005
[92]国务院.护士条例.http://www. gov. cn/zwgk/2008-02/04/content_882178. htm.,2008
[93]中央政府. 国务院办公室关于硕士学位教育的说明.http://www. gov. cn/gzdt/2009-03/02/content_1248607. htm,2009
[94]护理的未来和特点.1956,3(6)：245-247
[95]余翔.一位优秀的公共卫生护士.中华护理杂志,1957,4(1)：7-8
[96]冰心.向卫生保健工作者致敬.中华护理杂志,1954,1(1)：2-5
[97]徐宝庆.病人心理护理的经验教训.中华护理杂志,1959,6(6)：223-4
[98]翁巾华,吴霞.住院病人心理问题的调查.中华护理杂志,1984,19(3)：157-160
[99]刘晓虹.100例住院病人心理需求的调查.中华护理杂志,1989,24(4)：221-2
[100]陈淑坚.医院妇产科的健康教育.中华护理杂志,1955,2(5)：235-7
[101]张月华.护士的前途应当是大夫.中华护理杂志,1956,3(6)：250-251
[102]林菊英.我不同意护士的发展前途是当大夫.中华护理杂志,1956,3(8)：252
[103]李玫.护士决不是一个过渡职业.中华护理杂志,1956,3(6)：253
[104]全力做好社会主义医疗工作.中华护理杂志,1965,10(4)：195
[105]消息.中华护理杂志,1966,11(1)：56-7
[106]张爱诚.护理教育.中华护理杂志,1956,3(6)：256-8
[107]王琇瑛.护理教育不应该定位在中专.中华护理杂志,1956,3(6)：254-6
[108]郭燕红.建立临床护理专家体系以提高护理.中华护理杂志,2004,39(12)：952-3
[109]李俊欣,刘焕巧.自理理论和健康指导联合应用于心脏围手术期护理.河北职工医学院学报,2003,20(3)：31-32
[110]郭琳华.Leininger跨文化护理理论的评价与应用.内蒙古医学杂志,2004,36(3)：204-206
[111]保颖怡,赵国琴,潘杰.Rogers护理理论的应用.护理研究,2004,18(9)：1511-1513
[112]张君娥,尤黎明,张美芬.护理理论与实践：现实中的差距.中华护理杂志,2004,39(6)：432-434
[113]殷磊.中国护理的发展需要原创性护理理论指导.中华护理杂志,2005,40(4)：315-317
[114]李峥.现代护理学研究方法进展.2009年全国研究生导师师资培训班,2009.11
[115]刘晓峰.论高等学校的学科结构与专业设置.河南中医学院学报,2005,20(1)：69-71
[116]朱海利,陈洪华,张银华,等.我国护理学硕士研究生教育存在的问题及对策.护理学杂志,2006,21(11)：64-66
[117]姜安丽.Fundamentals of Nursing·护理学基础.北京：人民卫生出版社,2005,297
[118]E.拉兹洛.用系统论的观点看世界：科学新发展的自然哲学.北京：中国社会科学出版社,1985,13
[119]杨连生.科学学.北京：科学技术文献出版社,1988,3-21
[120](英)J.D.贝尔纳,L.A.马凯.在通向科学学的道路上.北京：科学出版社,1980,14
[121]拉契科夫.科学学：问题结构基本原理(韩秉成,陈益升,倪星源,译).北京：科学出版社,1984,15
[122]王通讯.宏观人才学.北京：中国社会科学出版社,2001,12
[123]白玫,沈宁.试述护理人才的内涵.中华护理杂志,2003,38(10)：828-830
[124]百度百科.人才结构.http://baike.baidu. com/view/992308. html?goodTagLemma,2009
[125]周泉兴.高等教育质量标准：特征、价值取向及结构体系.江苏高教,2004,(3)：8-10
[126]郝德永.课程研制方法论.北京：教育科学出版社,2000,16
[127]黑格尔.小逻辑.北京：商务印书馆,1980,39
[128]刘少鹏,张艳芬,罗满.我国护理学硕士研究生专业设置方向的分析.护理学杂志,2009,24(6)外科版：77-78
[129]沃勒斯坦.开放社会科学：重建社会科学报告书.北京：生活读书新知三联书店,1997,53
[130]甄橙.医学与护理学发展史.北京：北京大学医学出版社,2008,249
[131]爱因斯坦.爱因斯坦文集(第一卷).北京：商务印书馆.1979,235
[132]J.D.贝尔纳.历史上的科学.北京：科学出版社,1959,684-6
[133]黑格尔.精神现象学.北京：商务印书馆,1979,35
[134]路德维希·冯·贝塔郎菲.生命问题——现代生物学思想评价.北京：商务印书馆,1999,203
[135]姜安丽.护理理论.北京：人民卫生出版社,2009,12
[136]马骥雄.外国教育史略.北京：人民教育出版社,1991,397-9
[137]叶澜.关于加强教育科学“自我意识”的思考.华东师范大学学报(教育科学版),1987,3
[138]陈峰.试论教育科学的功能.湖南师大社会科学学报.1990,(6)：12-14
[139]大河内一男.教育学的理论问题.北京：教育科学出版社,1984,194
[140]吴康宁.对我国教育理论发展的思考.教育研究,1992,(12)：21-24
[141]毛祖桓.教育学科体系的结构研究.北京：中央民族大学出版社,1999,57
[142]汪道鑫.护理伦理学.南昌：江西科学出版社,2008,4
[143]任小红.护理美学.北京：中国医药科技出版社,2005,53
[144]王雯,刘新芝.护理社会学.北京：北京医科大学、中国协和医科大学联合出版社,2001,4
[145]刘则杨.护理经济学概论.北京：中国科技出版社：43-44
[146]霍孝蓉.实用护理人文学.南京：东南大学出版社,2006,110-113
[147]于浩.医学统计学.北京：中国统计出版社,2005,1
[148]肖顺贞.护理研究.北京：人民卫生出版社,1998,4
[149]护理信息学http://wiki. miforum. net/index. php/%E6%8A%A4%E7%90%86%E4%BF%Al%E6%81%AF%E5%AD%A6
[150]姜安丽.护理学基础.北京：人民卫生出版社,2006,10
[151]李小妹.护理学导论.北京：人民卫生出版社,2006,12
[152]高建群,熊红霞.内科护理学.南昌：江西科学技术出版社,2008,1
[153]杨珍杰,郭茂珍.外科护理学.武汉：湖北科学技术出版社,2008,1
[154]李和.妇产科护理学.南昌：江西科学技术出版社,2008,1
[155]张丽莉.儿科护理学.郑州：郑州大学出版社,2007,1
[156]丁波.精神科护理学.南昌：江西科学技术出版社,2007,1
[157]张惠兰,陈荣秀.肿瘤护理学.天津：天津科技出版社,2002,1
[158]邹立人.社区护理学.杭州：浙江科技出版社,2006,4
[159]王庸晋,王克芳.危重症护理学.北京：人民军医出版社,2004,2-3
[160]敖薪.急救护理学.北京：高等教育出版社,2008,1-6
[161]化前珍.老年护理学.北京：人民卫生出版社,2006,5
[162]赵美玉.护理管理学.郑州：郑州大学出版社,2004,46-48
[163]刘国珍.护理心理学.南昌：江西科学技术出版社,2008,5
[164]姜安丽,李树贞.护理教育学.北京：高等教育出版社,2002,3
[165]郭学军,周梅.康复护理学.郑州：郑州大学出版社,2008,7-8
[166]黄津芳,刘玉莹.护理健康教育学.北京：科学技术文献出版社,2000,1-2
[167]关于设立护理学一级学科的建议.复旦大学未发表调查报告,2007
© 2004-2018 中国地质图书馆版权所有 京ICP备05064691号 京公网安备11010802017129号 地址：北京市海淀区学院路29号 邮编：100083 电话：办公室：(+86 10)66554848；文献借阅、咨询服务、科技查新：66554700 |