二元土地市场、城乡收入差距与城市结构体系的研究
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摘要
土地问题是一个古老而又全新的话题。古老是因为人类的一切生产活动都离不开土地这个最基本的要素,古典经济学家威廉·配弟(William Petty)有一句名言：土地是财富之母,说明在传统的农业社会中土地是创造财富的最重要工具。全新则是因为在人类的工业化、城市化进程中,土地的属性和用途都发生了很大的变化,在从单纯的农业用途转为各类非农用途中,土地的形态、价值(级差地租)都发生了巨大的变化。学过微观经济学的人都知道,在新古典的生产函数中,只剩下劳动力、资本、技术等生产要素,土地要素突然消失了。这里面其实包含着深刻的土地制度变迁过程,就是随着西方发达国家的工业化、城市化快速推进和迅速完成,土地要素已经完全资本化了。但我国正处于这个土地资本化的过程中,还远远没有完成土地的完全资本化,这主要跟我国目前城乡分割的二元土地制度有关。土地问题一头联着农村,一头联着城市。可以这样说,目前我国在城市化进程中出现的许多重大经济社会问题都跟这个二元土地制度有着密不可分的关系,具体到农村中的宅基地、社会保障、小产权房以及征地补偿、土地信贷抵押等问题,城市中的住房价格、土地财政和地方融资平台债务等问题,大到提高农民收入、解决“三农”问题、遏制城乡差距的进一步扩大以及增强内需、转变经济增长方式和寻求中国经济增长新动力等这些重大的结构性挑战,所有这些问题的解决都必须基于对我国土地问题的深入研究和探索。
中共中央在十七届三中全会公布的《中共中央关于推进农村改革发展若干重大问题的决定》,是决策层为实现2020年农村改革发展基本目标所作的全面布局,其中讲到“要打破非农建设用地必须征为国有的现有格局,赋予农村集体土地与国有土地同等的地位”。这是我国在破除城乡分割的二元土地制度上迈出的重要一步,有着深刻的经济社会背景。从90年代中后期开始,我国的城乡收入差距不断扩大,“三农”问题始终是经济发展中的最突出问题,让农民变成“市民”的城市化进程是解决这一问题的根本途径。目前城市化推进过程中的最大阻碍就是二元土地制度,这里面又有三层含义：1.农民没有拥有宅基地的抵押权、出售权和交易权,征地补偿水平又很低,导致农民缺乏进入城市的初始资本,加上户籍制度等约束只能在城乡之间做“候鸟式”流动,不能成为真正的市民。2.建设用地指标不能在省际间交易,一方面导致了全国范围内土地利用效率的极大损失,另一方面也加剧了东部沿海地区的土地紧张程度,推动了大城市房价的不断上涨,大城市的产业集聚和人口吸纳能力受到土地指标不足的严重制约。3.大量人口不能顺利流入到大城市,大城市的产业集聚能力又受到土地不够的限制,全国统一的要素市场无法形成,这又会导致我国城市结构的“扁平化”分布,即“大城市不足、中小城市过多”的失衡状况,二元土地制度对我国形成大都市圈式的城市结构造成了极大的障碍。按照前面的分析,本文主要涉及到以下三大块内容：
1.城乡分割的二元土地市场与城乡收入差距、土地空间配置效率等之间的关系。本文通过构建一个两部门经济的一般均衡理论框架,运用参数校准和数值模拟技术,模拟了1992-2009年间二元土地市场对我国城乡收入差距的影响。另外,通过对扩展型的Cobb-Douglass生产函数的实证估测,运用实证计量方法得到1999-2007年间我国211个地级市的建设用地边际生产率,并通过泰尔指数的方法分解出了省内差距和省间差距对各地级市建设用地边际生产率差异的各自影响程度,对“土地指标不允许跨省间交易”的政策造成的土地空间效率损失做出了实证的估计。
2.从土地市场的城乡二元结构导致城市住宅用地供给不足的角度出发,借助Tiebout-Oates理论模型分析了2001-2007年间全国35个大中型城市的住宅用地供给量与住宅价格水平、地方公共品的资本化速度这三者之间的关系,并在此基础上通过Helpman-Krugman模型实证研究了1998-2007年间我国211个地级及以上城市的居住地价水平与差异化产品区位分布之间的关系,并从城乡分割的土地市场角度对我国如何改变目前“大型城市数量不够、中小城市发展过多”的“扁平化”城市结构体系作出了一些尝试性的回答,最后在粮食和能源安全的背景下,结合我国的地理禀赋、政府和市场的选择来对我国未来的城市结构必须采取大都市圈式的空间模式进行了严密的论证。
3.鉴于目前全国各地在建立城乡一体化的土地市场方面已经有了很多有益的探索,加上前面的理论模型和实证研究都只是论证或解释了目前这种二元土地制度会带来哪些弊端,在建立了城乡一体化的土地市场后会带来哪些改善,但其实并不涉及也不可能涉及到对土地市场从目前的城乡分割逐渐走向城乡融合这个“转轨过程”的分析,这只能是基于对现实中的各种试点模式的归纳与提炼才能作出回答。事实上,全国许多地方在各自的探索过程中已经创造出了不同的“转轨模式”,笔者结合自己在天津市、重庆市、浙江省嘉兴市和慈溪市的调研活动,按照土地市场的城市一体化程度的高低,对其进行一定的归纳与总结,并跟前面的理论和实证研究结合起来,以便更完整地把握住本文的研究主题,体现本文的研究意义和价值。
本文的主要政策建议就是,要尽快打破土地制度的城乡二元结构,让集体建设用地(包括宅基地)享受到跟城市国有土地“同地、同权、同价”的平等待遇,包括允许集体建设用地直接入市、宅基地用于抵押、流转和出售等,这对遏制城乡收入差距的进一步扩大、可持续地推进城市化进程、大幅提高土地的空间配置效率、优化城市结构和产业结构等方面都可以起到至关重要的作用。
最后,需要特别指出的是,由于我国的土地制度规定城市土地都是国有,农村土地是集体所有,土地制度或市场的城乡分割指的就是“集体建设用地不能直接入市,享受跟国有土地一样的待遇”,因此,本文这里出现的城乡一体化或城乡统筹的土地制度或市场,除非特别说明,指的都是城乡一体化的建设用地市场,不包括耕地、滩涂、未利用地等所有其它类型的土地。
Land is both an ancient and new topic. All human activities are inseparable from land, Willam Petty,a classical economist had a famous saying:Land is the mother of wealth, which demonstrated that land is the most important tool of wealth creating in agriculture society. As a new topic, in the process of industrialization and urbanization, the properties and uses of land have undergone great changes. In the process of switch from the simple agriculture to non-agriculture uses, the form and value(differential rent) of land have also changed greatly. People who have learned microeconomics know that, labor、capital and technology are factors in the neo-classical production function, which implies a profound institutional change, with the industrialization and rapid urbanization in the Western developed countries, land has been fully capitalized. In china, the capitalization of land is in the process, which mainly relates to the urban-rural division of land system. Land-related issues are in a joint state, associated with urban and rural. The dual land system has a close relationship with many major economic and social problems in China, specific to problems of rural housing landN social security、"small property room" and compensation for land acquisition, land mortgage and credit issues, the real estate in urban、land finance and debt problems of local financing platform. Moreover, land problem also related to the large raise of farmers'income, the "three rural" issues, curbing the further expansion of urban-rural gap and the expansion of domestic demand, seeking the new driving force for China's economic growth, those significant structural challenges, a deep study and exploration of land-related problems in China is absolutely necessary for the solutions of all above topics.
"CPC Central Committee's decision of some important issues in the process of rural reform" published in Third Plenary Session of the 17th CPC Central Committee, it is the comprehensive layout to achieving basic objectives of rural reform and development in 2020, in which sopke of" break existing pattern which required that the non-agriculture construction land much become state-owned, granted equal status with state-owned land." This is an important step of getting rid of the dual urban-rural land system, which has profound economic and social background.urban-rural income gap has been expanding from the 1990s, "Three rural" issue is always the most prominent problem in the development process,the fundamental way to slove is to let farmers become citizens.The dual land system is the largest obstacle in the process of urbanization, it implies three meanings:1.farmers are lack of mortgage、sale and trade right of farming and housing land, it would result lack of initial capital to enter into city,plus household registration system,farmers can only "Migrant" flow between urban and rural.2.counstruction land can't allocate inter-provincially,so it led great loss of land's productivity across the country, it also exacerbated tension of land with growth in eastern coastal areas,which promoted the rising house prices,lack of land indicators put serious constraints on big city's industrial concentration and absorptive capacity of population.3.people can not successfully flow into large cities, industrial clustering ability is constrained by dual land system,can't form a unified national market of elements,which in turn led to the "flat" distribution of city's structure, imbalance state of "lack of large cities, too many medium and small cities",dual land system was the greatest obstacle for formation of large metropolitan urban structure. According to the preceding analysis, this article mainly related to the following three fields:
1.The relationship of dual urban-rural division of land markets with the urban-rural income gap and allocation efficiency of construction land.This paper built a general equilibrium framework of two-sector economy, with the numerical simulation technique to simulate effect of dual land market to urban-rural income gap in 1992-2009.In addition,this paper made an empirical estimation by extended Cobb-Douglass production function, then obtained the marginal productivity of construction land of 211 cities in 1999-2007, and with the approach of Theil index decomposition, we got effect of intra-provincial and inter-provincial differences on marginal productivity's gap among 211 cities.
2. From the fact that dual land market led to insufficient supply of residential urban land, we analysised the relationship between residential land supply、housing price level and rate of capitalization of local public goods in the framework of Tiebout-Oates model.Futhermore, We empirically investigated effect of residential land price on locating distribution of manufacturing, made some tentative answers about how to change current city structure "lack of large cities, too many medium and small cities" In the context of food and energy security, we demonstrated that city structure must take spatial pattern of Metropolitan style with geographical endowments and choice of governments(central and local) and market.
3. Many useful researches about integration of urban and rural land markets have been in the procees, coupled with the facts that previous theoretical and empirical studies just demonstrated or explained which disadvantages the dual land system has and which improvements integration of urban and rural land makets would bring.But it did not involve and relate to analysis of "transitional process" from current urban-rural division tointegration, only on the base of experimental researchs.In fact, many districts have created different "transitional model",the author made relevant research activities in Tianjin,Chongqing, Jiaxing and Cixi of Zhejiang Province, concluded and summarized according to level of urban-rural land market's integration, it combined with previous theoretical studies in order to more fully grasp theme of this paper and reflect significance and value of this research.
The main policy suggestions are that dual urban-rural land system must be got rid of as soon as possible, so that collective construction land (including housing land) can enjoy equal treatment as state-owned land in the principle of "the same land, the same right, the same price", which included allowance of collective land directly into construction land's market,the mortgage、transfer and sale right of housing land. It can also play a crucial role at curbing further expansion of income gap between urban and rural areas,sustainable urbanization process,a substantial increase in the efficiency of spatial allocation of land, to optimize city and industry structure,etc.
Finally, it needed to be noted that, because Provisions of land system in China regulated that urban land is state-owned,rural land is collectively owned, respectly land system or market segmentation refers to "collective construction land can't directly enter to city market and enjoy the same treatment with state-owned land",land system or market with urban-rural intergration in this paper, unless specified notes, refered to construction land market with urban-rural intergration,not include the rural farmland,beaches,other unused land and all other types of land.
中共中央在十七届三中全会公布的《中共中央关于推进农村改革发展若干重大问题的决定》,是决策层为实现2020年农村改革发展基本目标所作的全面布局,其中讲到“要打破非农建设用地必须征为国有的现有格局,赋予农村集体土地与国有土地同等的地位”。这是我国在破除城乡分割的二元土地制度上迈出的重要一步,有着深刻的经济社会背景。从90年代中后期开始,我国的城乡收入差距不断扩大,“三农”问题始终是经济发展中的最突出问题,让农民变成“市民”的城市化进程是解决这一问题的根本途径。目前城市化推进过程中的最大阻碍就是二元土地制度,这里面又有三层含义：1.农民没有拥有宅基地的抵押权、出售权和交易权,征地补偿水平又很低,导致农民缺乏进入城市的初始资本,加上户籍制度等约束只能在城乡之间做“候鸟式”流动,不能成为真正的市民。2.建设用地指标不能在省际间交易,一方面导致了全国范围内土地利用效率的极大损失,另一方面也加剧了东部沿海地区的土地紧张程度,推动了大城市房价的不断上涨,大城市的产业集聚和人口吸纳能力受到土地指标不足的严重制约。3.大量人口不能顺利流入到大城市,大城市的产业集聚能力又受到土地不够的限制,全国统一的要素市场无法形成,这又会导致我国城市结构的“扁平化”分布,即“大城市不足、中小城市过多”的失衡状况,二元土地制度对我国形成大都市圈式的城市结构造成了极大的障碍。按照前面的分析,本文主要涉及到以下三大块内容：
1.城乡分割的二元土地市场与城乡收入差距、土地空间配置效率等之间的关系。本文通过构建一个两部门经济的一般均衡理论框架,运用参数校准和数值模拟技术,模拟了1992-2009年间二元土地市场对我国城乡收入差距的影响。另外,通过对扩展型的Cobb-Douglass生产函数的实证估测,运用实证计量方法得到1999-2007年间我国211个地级市的建设用地边际生产率,并通过泰尔指数的方法分解出了省内差距和省间差距对各地级市建设用地边际生产率差异的各自影响程度,对“土地指标不允许跨省间交易”的政策造成的土地空间效率损失做出了实证的估计。
2.从土地市场的城乡二元结构导致城市住宅用地供给不足的角度出发,借助Tiebout-Oates理论模型分析了2001-2007年间全国35个大中型城市的住宅用地供给量与住宅价格水平、地方公共品的资本化速度这三者之间的关系,并在此基础上通过Helpman-Krugman模型实证研究了1998-2007年间我国211个地级及以上城市的居住地价水平与差异化产品区位分布之间的关系,并从城乡分割的土地市场角度对我国如何改变目前“大型城市数量不够、中小城市发展过多”的“扁平化”城市结构体系作出了一些尝试性的回答,最后在粮食和能源安全的背景下,结合我国的地理禀赋、政府和市场的选择来对我国未来的城市结构必须采取大都市圈式的空间模式进行了严密的论证。
3.鉴于目前全国各地在建立城乡一体化的土地市场方面已经有了很多有益的探索,加上前面的理论模型和实证研究都只是论证或解释了目前这种二元土地制度会带来哪些弊端,在建立了城乡一体化的土地市场后会带来哪些改善,但其实并不涉及也不可能涉及到对土地市场从目前的城乡分割逐渐走向城乡融合这个“转轨过程”的分析,这只能是基于对现实中的各种试点模式的归纳与提炼才能作出回答。事实上,全国许多地方在各自的探索过程中已经创造出了不同的“转轨模式”,笔者结合自己在天津市、重庆市、浙江省嘉兴市和慈溪市的调研活动,按照土地市场的城市一体化程度的高低,对其进行一定的归纳与总结,并跟前面的理论和实证研究结合起来,以便更完整地把握住本文的研究主题,体现本文的研究意义和价值。
本文的主要政策建议就是,要尽快打破土地制度的城乡二元结构,让集体建设用地(包括宅基地)享受到跟城市国有土地“同地、同权、同价”的平等待遇,包括允许集体建设用地直接入市、宅基地用于抵押、流转和出售等,这对遏制城乡收入差距的进一步扩大、可持续地推进城市化进程、大幅提高土地的空间配置效率、优化城市结构和产业结构等方面都可以起到至关重要的作用。
最后,需要特别指出的是,由于我国的土地制度规定城市土地都是国有,农村土地是集体所有,土地制度或市场的城乡分割指的就是“集体建设用地不能直接入市,享受跟国有土地一样的待遇”,因此,本文这里出现的城乡一体化或城乡统筹的土地制度或市场,除非特别说明,指的都是城乡一体化的建设用地市场,不包括耕地、滩涂、未利用地等所有其它类型的土地。
Land is both an ancient and new topic. All human activities are inseparable from land, Willam Petty,a classical economist had a famous saying:Land is the mother of wealth, which demonstrated that land is the most important tool of wealth creating in agriculture society. As a new topic, in the process of industrialization and urbanization, the properties and uses of land have undergone great changes. In the process of switch from the simple agriculture to non-agriculture uses, the form and value(differential rent) of land have also changed greatly. People who have learned microeconomics know that, labor、capital and technology are factors in the neo-classical production function, which implies a profound institutional change, with the industrialization and rapid urbanization in the Western developed countries, land has been fully capitalized. In china, the capitalization of land is in the process, which mainly relates to the urban-rural division of land system. Land-related issues are in a joint state, associated with urban and rural. The dual land system has a close relationship with many major economic and social problems in China, specific to problems of rural housing landN social security、"small property room" and compensation for land acquisition, land mortgage and credit issues, the real estate in urban、land finance and debt problems of local financing platform. Moreover, land problem also related to the large raise of farmers'income, the "three rural" issues, curbing the further expansion of urban-rural gap and the expansion of domestic demand, seeking the new driving force for China's economic growth, those significant structural challenges, a deep study and exploration of land-related problems in China is absolutely necessary for the solutions of all above topics.
"CPC Central Committee's decision of some important issues in the process of rural reform" published in Third Plenary Session of the 17th CPC Central Committee, it is the comprehensive layout to achieving basic objectives of rural reform and development in 2020, in which sopke of" break existing pattern which required that the non-agriculture construction land much become state-owned, granted equal status with state-owned land." This is an important step of getting rid of the dual urban-rural land system, which has profound economic and social background.urban-rural income gap has been expanding from the 1990s, "Three rural" issue is always the most prominent problem in the development process,the fundamental way to slove is to let farmers become citizens.The dual land system is the largest obstacle in the process of urbanization, it implies three meanings:1.farmers are lack of mortgage、sale and trade right of farming and housing land, it would result lack of initial capital to enter into city,plus household registration system,farmers can only "Migrant" flow between urban and rural.2.counstruction land can't allocate inter-provincially,so it led great loss of land's productivity across the country, it also exacerbated tension of land with growth in eastern coastal areas,which promoted the rising house prices,lack of land indicators put serious constraints on big city's industrial concentration and absorptive capacity of population.3.people can not successfully flow into large cities, industrial clustering ability is constrained by dual land system,can't form a unified national market of elements,which in turn led to the "flat" distribution of city's structure, imbalance state of "lack of large cities, too many medium and small cities",dual land system was the greatest obstacle for formation of large metropolitan urban structure. According to the preceding analysis, this article mainly related to the following three fields:
1.The relationship of dual urban-rural division of land markets with the urban-rural income gap and allocation efficiency of construction land.This paper built a general equilibrium framework of two-sector economy, with the numerical simulation technique to simulate effect of dual land market to urban-rural income gap in 1992-2009.In addition,this paper made an empirical estimation by extended Cobb-Douglass production function, then obtained the marginal productivity of construction land of 211 cities in 1999-2007, and with the approach of Theil index decomposition, we got effect of intra-provincial and inter-provincial differences on marginal productivity's gap among 211 cities.
2. From the fact that dual land market led to insufficient supply of residential urban land, we analysised the relationship between residential land supply、housing price level and rate of capitalization of local public goods in the framework of Tiebout-Oates model.Futhermore, We empirically investigated effect of residential land price on locating distribution of manufacturing, made some tentative answers about how to change current city structure "lack of large cities, too many medium and small cities" In the context of food and energy security, we demonstrated that city structure must take spatial pattern of Metropolitan style with geographical endowments and choice of governments(central and local) and market.
3. Many useful researches about integration of urban and rural land markets have been in the procees, coupled with the facts that previous theoretical and empirical studies just demonstrated or explained which disadvantages the dual land system has and which improvements integration of urban and rural land makets would bring.But it did not involve and relate to analysis of "transitional process" from current urban-rural division tointegration, only on the base of experimental researchs.In fact, many districts have created different "transitional model",the author made relevant research activities in Tianjin,Chongqing, Jiaxing and Cixi of Zhejiang Province, concluded and summarized according to level of urban-rural land market's integration, it combined with previous theoretical studies in order to more fully grasp theme of this paper and reflect significance and value of this research.
The main policy suggestions are that dual urban-rural land system must be got rid of as soon as possible, so that collective construction land (including housing land) can enjoy equal treatment as state-owned land in the principle of "the same land, the same right, the same price", which included allowance of collective land directly into construction land's market,the mortgage、transfer and sale right of housing land. It can also play a crucial role at curbing further expansion of income gap between urban and rural areas,sustainable urbanization process,a substantial increase in the efficiency of spatial allocation of land, to optimize city and industry structure,etc.
Finally, it needed to be noted that, because Provisions of land system in China regulated that urban land is state-owned,rural land is collectively owned, respectly land system or market segmentation refers to "collective construction land can't directly enter to city market and enjoy the same treatment with state-owned land",land system or market with urban-rural intergration in this paper, unless specified notes, refered to construction land market with urban-rural intergration,not include the rural farmland,beaches,other unused land and all other types of land.
引文
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