5、7、9岁儿童自我面孔的认知发展特点
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摘要
能够完成镜像自我面孔再认是儿童认知发展中的一个重要里程碑,正常个体在具备自我面孔再认能力后,才逐渐发展出其他各种高级心理能力。以往研究发现,5岁儿童对自我面孔和他人面孔的加工没有差异,但成人却表现出自我面孔加工的优势效应。诸多来自认知神经科学的研究也发现对自我和他人面孔的识别存在脑机制上的差异,如激发的脑电波存在潜伏期和波幅上的差别,以及激活的脑区有所不同等,这些都说明个体对自我和他人面孔的识别在发展中存在差异。前人的研究大多集中在幼几何时完成即时和延时的自我面孔再认以及对自我面孔再认的影响因素等问题而缺乏对年长儿童自我面孔识别发展情况的纵向研究。因此本研究拟考察5、7、9岁儿童自我面孔认知的发展特点。
本研究通过6个实验系统探讨了5、7、9岁儿童在自我整体面孔、外部特征、内部特征、构形信息以及总体认知准确度等方面自我面孔认知发展的特点。
研究一考察了外部特征和内部特征对5、7、9岁被试儿童自我面孔识别的影响,由3个实验构成。实验1让被试儿童识别正立或倒置的自我整体面孔、内部特征、外部特征,考察内、外部特征在儿童自我面孔识别中的作用。实验2、3通过变化外部特征和内部特征部位来进一步考察儿童自我面孔认知的发展特点以及与自我意识的关系。结果发现,外部特征在5岁儿童的自我面孔识别中起到重要作用,并表现出性别差异,即相对于男童,5岁女童在自我面孔识别中更依赖于外部特征。随着年龄的增长,儿童对内部特征的识别水平逐渐提高,而外部特征的影响逐渐变小。到9岁,男童、女童对自我面孔内部特征的识别都达到比较高的水平,性别差异不再显著。
研究二通过实验4考察在外部特征不变的情况下,儿童对自我面孔构形信息加工的发展特点。实验4通过Photoshop将儿童嘴巴和眼睛上下移动0.2°、0.4°视角,或者将眼睛分开或靠拢0.2°、0.4°、0.6°和0.8°视角,来考察面孔垂直构形信息的变化以及水平构形信息的变化对儿童自我面孔再认的影响,并与成人进行对比,结果发现对构形信息的加工水平随年龄增长而逐渐提高,对较小改变(视角垂直0.2°、水平0.4°以下)的觉察能力在7-9岁得到显著提升,9岁儿童对自我面孔构形信息的加工与成人无显著差异。且儿童对自我面孔构形信息的识别存在特征和方向上的差异,即对嘴巴部位的构形信息更为敏感,而对垂直方向的构形信息相对比水平方向的更敏感。
为进一步验证研究二的结果,研究三通过实验5考察减轻记忆负荷后儿童对自我面孔构形信息的加工水平是否仍然随年龄的增长而提升。在实验5中,同时呈现儿童本来面孔以及构形信息改变的面孔让儿童进行判断,结果发现,即使减轻了记忆负荷,儿童对构形信息的加工水平依然表现出随年龄增长而提高的趋向。
研究四考察儿童对整体的自我面孔再认是否存在自我提升效应。实验6在保持儿童外部特征不变的情况下,采用morph技术将之分别与漂亮和不漂亮的他人面孔相融合,然后让儿童判断哪个或哪些面孔是他原本的模样,以考察儿童是否倾向于将更漂亮的面孔视为自己的。结果发现,儿童普遍出现了自我面孔的提升效应,即更多选择融合了漂亮他人面孔的面孔为自己的本来相貌。5岁儿童的提升效应最显著,随着年龄的增长,儿童对自我面孔的识别越来越准确,提升效应在9岁显著下降。
总的来说,5岁儿童在加工自我面孔时可能更倾向于采用分析性加工策略,外部特征是他们识别自我面孔的重要线索,尤其是5岁女童。随着年龄的增长,儿童倾向于采用整体加工方式,兼重内外部特征的加工。对于面孔内、外部特征和构形信息的加工在9岁时接近成人水平,儿童对自我面孔识别的加工成熟期要略早于对他人面孔的识别。儿童对整体自我面孔的识别存在自我提升倾向。
5、7、9岁儿童自我面孔认知的发展可能体现了自我身份加工的发展过程。根据身份加工理论,个体通过同化和顺应维持动态的自我身份建构过程。对于年幼儿童,自我的外部特征是显著的自我识别线索,而随着面孔识别经验的增多,儿童意识到内部特征是相对稳定的,更有利于维持自我的一致性,从而也更加注重对自我内部特征的加工,表现出内外部特征并重的倾向。
本研究系统考察了5-9岁儿童自我面孔识别能力的发展并获得了一些新的发现,但还存在着很多问题,有待以后进一步的研究。如采用眼动或脑电研究对实验结果进行验证,并考察对儿童自我面孔识别产生影响的因素,从而更好地理解儿童自我认知的发展。
Mirror self-recognition is an important milestone in cognitive development of children. After obtaining the ability of self-face recognition, normal children can develop other advanced psychological abilities. Most of the former researches focused on the ages when children can achieve immediate and delayed self recognition and the influential factors. There are no researches of development of self-recognition for older children. In fact, there is no significant difference between recognition of self face and other faces for5-year-old children, whereas adults show superiority effect in self-face-recognition. Many researches from cognitive neural science proved that there are many differences in brain mechanisms of self and other face recognition. Those indicate that development of recognition for self and other faces differes with each other. The former researches paid more attention on development of other-face recognition abilities, while lacked the observation of development of self-recognition. Therefore, the present study attempts to investigate developmental characteristics of self-recognition for5,7and9-year-old children.
The present study explores developmental characteristics of self-recognition of5,7and9-year old children from the aspects of whole faces, external features, internal features, configural information and self-enhancement.
Study one investigates the influences of external and internal features to self-face recognition of5-9-year children via experiment1to3. In experiment1, upright and inverted self original faces, internal, external features were showed to children to investigate the role of internal and external features in self-face recognition. Experiment2and3further explored the role of features through changing hairstyle and internal features. The results showed that the external features play an important role in self recognition of5-year-old children, especially for girls. The level for recognition of self internal features improves with age. The influence of external features comparatively lessened for7and9-year-old children.
Study two investigates the developmental trend of configural information process with external features unchanged through experiment4. In experiment4, the mouths and eyes were moved vertically for visual angel of0.2°,0.4°, or the eyes were taken apart or closed for visual angel of0.2°,0.4°,0.6°,0.8°, to explore the influence of changes of configural information on self recognition. The results showed that process of configuration improved with age. The detecting ability for minor configural information (vertical0.2°, horizontal0.4°) improved significantly between age7to9. There was no significant difference between configural information processing ability of9-year-old children and adults. Furthermore, children were more susceptible to configural information in mouth part. furthermore, children were comparatively more sensitive to vertical information than horizontal configural information.
Study three explored the influence of memory to configural information process through experiment5. In experiment5, the original face and faces with configural information changed were showed simultaneously for children to explore children's detecting ability of configural information without burden of memory. The results showed that even if there was no burden of memory, children's detecting ability still improved with age.
Study four investigated if there is self-enhancement effect in self face recognition, which consists one experiment. In experiment6, children's facial images were morphed with a highly attractive or unattractive same-gender, same-age target face with hairstyle unchanged. Those pictures were showed to children to choose which their original facial image was. The results found that self-enhancement was prevalent in children, e.g., they were more likely to choose an attractively enhanced version of their own face, especially5-year-old children. The self-enhancement reduced with age in children.
Generally speaking, younger children process their own faces analytically. They incline to use external features as the main cue in self-face recognition. Older children tend to process their own faces holistically; external and internal features are both used in self recognition. For9-year-old children, the processing ability of features and configural information of own faces are closed to adults.
The study investigates the development of self-face recognition of children aged from5to9systematically and some new findings are obtained. Yet there are still many problems need to be solved in future study. For example, eye movement and ERP researches can be used to verify the conclusions and explore factors that may influence self-face recognition.
本研究通过6个实验系统探讨了5、7、9岁儿童在自我整体面孔、外部特征、内部特征、构形信息以及总体认知准确度等方面自我面孔认知发展的特点。
研究一考察了外部特征和内部特征对5、7、9岁被试儿童自我面孔识别的影响,由3个实验构成。实验1让被试儿童识别正立或倒置的自我整体面孔、内部特征、外部特征,考察内、外部特征在儿童自我面孔识别中的作用。实验2、3通过变化外部特征和内部特征部位来进一步考察儿童自我面孔认知的发展特点以及与自我意识的关系。结果发现,外部特征在5岁儿童的自我面孔识别中起到重要作用,并表现出性别差异,即相对于男童,5岁女童在自我面孔识别中更依赖于外部特征。随着年龄的增长,儿童对内部特征的识别水平逐渐提高,而外部特征的影响逐渐变小。到9岁,男童、女童对自我面孔内部特征的识别都达到比较高的水平,性别差异不再显著。
研究二通过实验4考察在外部特征不变的情况下,儿童对自我面孔构形信息加工的发展特点。实验4通过Photoshop将儿童嘴巴和眼睛上下移动0.2°、0.4°视角,或者将眼睛分开或靠拢0.2°、0.4°、0.6°和0.8°视角,来考察面孔垂直构形信息的变化以及水平构形信息的变化对儿童自我面孔再认的影响,并与成人进行对比,结果发现对构形信息的加工水平随年龄增长而逐渐提高,对较小改变(视角垂直0.2°、水平0.4°以下)的觉察能力在7-9岁得到显著提升,9岁儿童对自我面孔构形信息的加工与成人无显著差异。且儿童对自我面孔构形信息的识别存在特征和方向上的差异,即对嘴巴部位的构形信息更为敏感,而对垂直方向的构形信息相对比水平方向的更敏感。
为进一步验证研究二的结果,研究三通过实验5考察减轻记忆负荷后儿童对自我面孔构形信息的加工水平是否仍然随年龄的增长而提升。在实验5中,同时呈现儿童本来面孔以及构形信息改变的面孔让儿童进行判断,结果发现,即使减轻了记忆负荷,儿童对构形信息的加工水平依然表现出随年龄增长而提高的趋向。
研究四考察儿童对整体的自我面孔再认是否存在自我提升效应。实验6在保持儿童外部特征不变的情况下,采用morph技术将之分别与漂亮和不漂亮的他人面孔相融合,然后让儿童判断哪个或哪些面孔是他原本的模样,以考察儿童是否倾向于将更漂亮的面孔视为自己的。结果发现,儿童普遍出现了自我面孔的提升效应,即更多选择融合了漂亮他人面孔的面孔为自己的本来相貌。5岁儿童的提升效应最显著,随着年龄的增长,儿童对自我面孔的识别越来越准确,提升效应在9岁显著下降。
总的来说,5岁儿童在加工自我面孔时可能更倾向于采用分析性加工策略,外部特征是他们识别自我面孔的重要线索,尤其是5岁女童。随着年龄的增长,儿童倾向于采用整体加工方式,兼重内外部特征的加工。对于面孔内、外部特征和构形信息的加工在9岁时接近成人水平,儿童对自我面孔识别的加工成熟期要略早于对他人面孔的识别。儿童对整体自我面孔的识别存在自我提升倾向。
5、7、9岁儿童自我面孔认知的发展可能体现了自我身份加工的发展过程。根据身份加工理论,个体通过同化和顺应维持动态的自我身份建构过程。对于年幼儿童,自我的外部特征是显著的自我识别线索,而随着面孔识别经验的增多,儿童意识到内部特征是相对稳定的,更有利于维持自我的一致性,从而也更加注重对自我内部特征的加工,表现出内外部特征并重的倾向。
本研究系统考察了5-9岁儿童自我面孔识别能力的发展并获得了一些新的发现,但还存在着很多问题,有待以后进一步的研究。如采用眼动或脑电研究对实验结果进行验证,并考察对儿童自我面孔识别产生影响的因素,从而更好地理解儿童自我认知的发展。
Mirror self-recognition is an important milestone in cognitive development of children. After obtaining the ability of self-face recognition, normal children can develop other advanced psychological abilities. Most of the former researches focused on the ages when children can achieve immediate and delayed self recognition and the influential factors. There are no researches of development of self-recognition for older children. In fact, there is no significant difference between recognition of self face and other faces for5-year-old children, whereas adults show superiority effect in self-face-recognition. Many researches from cognitive neural science proved that there are many differences in brain mechanisms of self and other face recognition. Those indicate that development of recognition for self and other faces differes with each other. The former researches paid more attention on development of other-face recognition abilities, while lacked the observation of development of self-recognition. Therefore, the present study attempts to investigate developmental characteristics of self-recognition for5,7and9-year-old children.
The present study explores developmental characteristics of self-recognition of5,7and9-year old children from the aspects of whole faces, external features, internal features, configural information and self-enhancement.
Study one investigates the influences of external and internal features to self-face recognition of5-9-year children via experiment1to3. In experiment1, upright and inverted self original faces, internal, external features were showed to children to investigate the role of internal and external features in self-face recognition. Experiment2and3further explored the role of features through changing hairstyle and internal features. The results showed that the external features play an important role in self recognition of5-year-old children, especially for girls. The level for recognition of self internal features improves with age. The influence of external features comparatively lessened for7and9-year-old children.
Study two investigates the developmental trend of configural information process with external features unchanged through experiment4. In experiment4, the mouths and eyes were moved vertically for visual angel of0.2°,0.4°, or the eyes were taken apart or closed for visual angel of0.2°,0.4°,0.6°,0.8°, to explore the influence of changes of configural information on self recognition. The results showed that process of configuration improved with age. The detecting ability for minor configural information (vertical0.2°, horizontal0.4°) improved significantly between age7to9. There was no significant difference between configural information processing ability of9-year-old children and adults. Furthermore, children were more susceptible to configural information in mouth part. furthermore, children were comparatively more sensitive to vertical information than horizontal configural information.
Study three explored the influence of memory to configural information process through experiment5. In experiment5, the original face and faces with configural information changed were showed simultaneously for children to explore children's detecting ability of configural information without burden of memory. The results showed that even if there was no burden of memory, children's detecting ability still improved with age.
Study four investigated if there is self-enhancement effect in self face recognition, which consists one experiment. In experiment6, children's facial images were morphed with a highly attractive or unattractive same-gender, same-age target face with hairstyle unchanged. Those pictures were showed to children to choose which their original facial image was. The results found that self-enhancement was prevalent in children, e.g., they were more likely to choose an attractively enhanced version of their own face, especially5-year-old children. The self-enhancement reduced with age in children.
Generally speaking, younger children process their own faces analytically. They incline to use external features as the main cue in self-face recognition. Older children tend to process their own faces holistically; external and internal features are both used in self recognition. For9-year-old children, the processing ability of features and configural information of own faces are closed to adults.
The study investigates the development of self-face recognition of children aged from5to9systematically and some new findings are obtained. Yet there are still many problems need to be solved in future study. For example, eye movement and ERP researches can be used to verify the conclusions and explore factors that may influence self-face recognition.
引文
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Freire, A.,& Lee, K. (2001). Face recognition in 4 to 7-years-olds:processing of configural, fatural, and paraphernalia information. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,80,347-371.
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Halit, H., de Hann, M.& Johnson, M. H. (2003). Cortical specialisation for face processing: face-sensitive event-related potential components in 3 and 12-mong-old infants. NeuroImage, 19(3),1180-1193.
Harrison, V., Hole, G. J. (2009). Evidence for a contact-based explanation of the own-age bias in face recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Reivew,16(2),264-269.
Harter, S. (1986). Developmental perspective on the self system. Handbook of child psychology, Hetherington M, New York:Wiley,275-385.
Herlitz, A., Loven, J. (2009). Sex differences in cognitive functions. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 41(11),1081-1090.
Hole, G. J.,& Sergent, J. (1984). "An investigation into component and configural processes underlying face perception. British Journal of Psychology,78,221-242.
Hole, G. (1994). Configural factors in the perception of unfamiliar faces. Perception,23,65-74.
Howe, M.L.,& Courage, M.L. (1993). On resolving the enigma of infantile amnesia. Psychological Bulletin,113,305-326.
Johnson, A.K., Barnacz, A., Constantino, P., Triano, J., Shackelford, T.K., Keenan. J.P. (2004), Female deception detection as a function of commitment and self-awareness. Personality and individual differences.37,1417-1424.
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