西北沙尘气溶胶光学特性反演与沙尘暴的卫星监测
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摘要
沙尘作为对流层中最主要的气溶胶成分之一,可以调整地气系统辐射能量收支平衡,因此对气候变化产生了较大的强迫作用。强风吹起的沙尘还可以在短时间内对环境和人类造成严重的伤害。因此,研究沙尘气溶胶的光学特性,及时准确的监测沙尘的发生、发展,对深入了解和准确计算沙尘气溶胶的直接辐射强迫作用,以及预警和预防沙尘暴带来的危害有重要意义。本文发展了一套利用地面MFRSR反演气溶胶光学特性的算法,通过该算法对2008年中美首次联合沙尘观测数据进行了细致分析与研究,反演得到了我国西北地区沙尘气溶胶的光学特性。并对地面与卫星观测的气溶胶光学厚度进行了对比,分析了卫星在西北亮地表反演气溶胶的可靠性,同时本文还结合卫星观测与模式分析了星载微波传感器识别沙尘暴的能力,提出一种利用可见、红外、微波多卫星传感器检测沙尘的综合方法。
2008年中美首次联合沙尘观测,使用了包括有MFRSR和CIMEL等目前大量先进的气溶胶观测仪器,对我国西北沙尘气溶胶进行了观测。本文利用张掖站观测数据反演了沙尘气溶胶的光学特性。通过MFRSR反演得到的沙尘气溶胶光学厚度与AERONET标准观测一致,二者在0.67μm公共波段误差小于0.02。在假定沙尘粒子形状为球形,分布满足双对数正态分布的情况下,通过调整粒子谱分布中粗、细模态的参数,使Mie计算的光学厚度值与MFRSR观测值的误差平方和达到最小,从而得到了沙尘气溶胶的粒子谱分布。结果表明,沙尘气溶胶的粗模态平均中值半径为2.22μm,细模态平均中值半径为0.137μm,大粒子占粒子分布的主要部分,体积浓度约为小粒子的10倍。通过模式与观测的散射辐射与总辐射比值(DDR方法)的比较,反演了沙尘粒子的单次散射反照率与不对称因子。得到的沙尘单次散射率在0.415μm波段的平均值为0.76,随波长增加而逐步增加到0.86,这一数值小于国内、外关于亚洲和非洲沙尘的相关研究,表明我国西北地区沙尘对可见光实际具有较强的吸收性。同时我们对得的沙尘光学特性做了辐射闭合实验,模式与观测二者日平均直接、散射以及总辐射通量的误差分别为-2.07、-2.90、-8.54W／m2,说明反演得到的沙尘光学特性是合理、可靠的,这为准确计算沙尘气溶胶的直接辐射强迫奠定了坚实基础。
由于考虑到MFRSR观测的是整个半球天空的辐射通量密度,因而假定了沙尘粒子为球形,实际上沙尘粒子是不规则的非球形,为了检验这种假设是否合理,我们用-matrix, IGOM和Mie分别计算了非球形与球形沙尘粒子的光学特性参数,通过比较,发现球形与非球形二者的单次散射反照率、不对称因子、消光效率差别较小,而散射相函数有明显差别,并进一步计算对比了二者对到达地面的太阳辐射通量造成的差异。结果表明球形、非球形沙尘粒子不同的光学特性对到达地表太阳辐射通量的影响不大,从而证明球形粒子的假设对MFRSR反演沙尘光学特征是合理的。同时,利用蒙特卡洛辐射传输方法分析了球形、非球形粒子的前向散射在不同光学厚度、太阳天顶角以及有效粒子半径和复折射指数情况下,对MFRSR反演光学厚度造成的误差。结果表明当光学厚度和气溶胶有效粒子半径小于1时,前向散射造成的误差小于-3%。当光学厚度大于1并且太阳天顶角较大时(>60°),误差能达到-40%。
卫星观测是提供全球气溶胶光学厚度分布以及监测沙尘发生的有效途径。我们通过利用地面观测检验了MISR、MODIS在我国西北亮地表地区反演气溶胶光学厚度的准确性。结果的比较表明,MODIS暗像元业务算法使用近红外通道(2.1和3.8μm)获取地表反照率,并假定近红外通道(2.1μm)与其他两个通道(0.47和0.66μm)的地表反照率的关系,在我国西北地区上空反演得到的气溶胶光学厚度与地面观测存在较大误差。Deep Blue使用了地表反照率较小的蓝光波段(0.412和0.470μm)来剔除地表反射到达卫星的太阳辐射,从而在亮地表地区上空可以较为合理的反演气溶胶光学厚度。MISR从九个不同角度观测,能有效的剔除了地面反射的太阳辐射,在我国西北干旱、半干旱地区反演的气溶胶光学厚度有较高的准确性。
沙尘暴发生时,常常伴随有云的出现(特别是在蒙古气旋活动影响下),可见光和红外技术无法观测到云下的沙尘情况,微波受冰云的衰减较小,对冰云有一定的穿透能力,通过AMSR-E星载微波辐射计观测资料结合微波辐射传输模式的模拟计算,发现沙尘暴对高频微波有较为明显的衰减作用,进而提出了利用高、低频微波极化亮温差指数(MPI)监测沙尘的新方法,并通过可见、红外和微波三种技术方法组合,提供了卫星有效识别、监测沙尘的综合方法。
Dust aerosols, as a major component of aerosols in the atmosphere, can modulate the radiative energy balance of earth-atmosphere system and thus has large effect on the climate. The dust aerosols, which are blown up by strong wind, could also cause a severe havoc to environment and human activities. It is therefore important to fully understand dust aerosol radiative forcing effects on climate and monitor the evolution of dust storm. We developed a method to retrieve dust aerosol optical properties using the ground-based MFRSR measurements. We analyzed the data obtained from the 2008 China-U.S. joint field experiment and retrieved the optical properties of dust aerosols by applying this method. To validate satellite retrievals over Northwest China where the surface is relatively bright, we compared the aerosol optical depth (AOD) products from different satellites/retrieving methods with the AOD from the ground-based observations. We also examined the capability of microwave channels onboard satellite to detect dust storm and propose an integrated method to monitor dust using visible, infrared and microwave channels from the satellite.
Several advanced instruments including MFRSR and CIMEL were deployed in the 2008 China-U.S. joint field experiment. We used the data from the Zhangye site to retrieve dust aerosol optical properties over Northwestren China. The AOD, which we derived from the MFRSR, is consistent with that from CIMEL. The AOD difference between MFRSR and CIMEL is less than 0.02 at 0.67μm wavelength. By assuming a spherical shape of dust particle, we iterate the parameters of size distribution until the RMS differences among the AOD values derived from the observations at five MFRSR channels and those from Mie calculations is minimum. It is found that the mean values of the fine and coarse mode radii are 0.137μm and 2.22μm, respectively. The volume concentration of large particles is 10 times of small particles. We then use the diffuse-to-direct ratio method (DDR) to retrieve the single-scattering albedo (SSA) and asymmetry factor (ASY). The values of SSA, which range from 0.76 at 0.415μm to 0.86 at 0.870μm, are much lower than those derived in Africa and also relatively smaller than those obtained over East Asian. Our results clearly show that the dust aerosol over Northwest China is much more absorptive. We further carry out a radiative closure experiment. The daylight-averaged differences between model and observations are-2.07 Wm-2 for the direct normal flux,-2.90 Wm-2 for the diffuse flux, and-8.54 Wm-2 for the total flux. The good agreement between simulations and measurements indicates that our retrieved dust optical properties are reasonable and reliable.
Since the MFRSR measures the irradiances, the MFRSR retrievals may not be much sensitive to the shape of aerosol particles. We thus assumed that the shape of dust particles is spherical. However, the shapes of dust particles are irregular. In order to test our assumption, we calculate SSA, ASY, extinction efficiency (Qe) and scattering phase function for non-spherical particles using the T-matrix and IGOM methods and spherical dust particles using the Mie code. The differences of SSA, ASY and Qe between spherical and non-spherical particles are very small; however, the scattering phase function of spherical particle is quite different from that of non-spherical particle. Using all these dust optical properties along with the SBDART model to calculate the solar radiative flux reaching at surface, it is found that the solar radiative flux is not sensitive to different particle shapes. Therefore it is reasonable to retrieve dust aerosol optical properties by assuming a spherical shape. We also wrote a Monte Carlo radiative transfer code to examine the AOD error caused by the forward scattering of dust particles. We show that when the AOD values are less than 1, the AOD relative error caused by forward scattering is less than-3%. When the AOD value is greater than 1 with high solar zenith angle (＞60°), the relative error can reach-40%.
Satellite observations are an effective way to provide a regional coverage of aerosol optical depth and monitor the occurrence and evolution of dust storm. We use surface retrieved AOD to validate the MISR and MODIS AOD products over Northwest China where the surface is bright. Our results suggest that MODIS retrieved AOD values are not reliable over semi-arid and arid scenes. This is most likely because the MODIS operational aerosol retrievals over land use the dark-target approach. In this approach the near-infrared (2.1 and 3.8μm) channels are employed to estimate the spectral surface reflectance in order to separate the surface and atmospheric components of the radiance received by the satellite. It also assumes an empirical relationship to deduce surface reflectances at wavelengths of 0.47 and 0.66μm using the remote sensed surface reflectance values at 2.1μm. The AOD based on the Deep Blue algorithm are much improved over the MODIS values because Deep Blue employs two blue channels (0.412 and 0.470μm) in MODIS, for which surface reflectances are relatively small, to infer aerosol properties. MISR provides radiance measurements of the same target at nine different viewing angles. Since MISR can remove the atmospheric path contribution from the surface-leaving radiance by taking advantage of differences in multi-angular signatures, MISR is much less sensitive to surface type and can successfully retrieve AOD over bright surfaces.
The most common dust storms in East Asia are those caused by strong winds behind a cold front and generally coexist with cirrus. For example, the dust storm is especially often stirred up by Mongolian cyclone. The visible and IR techniques thus can not detect dust which is often under cirrus clouds. The microwave is not significantly attenuated by ice clouds and can penetrate ice cloud. We use AMSR-E and a microwave radiative transfer model to analyze dust effects on microwave. Both satellite measurements and model simulations show that dust particles can significantly reduce microwave radiation through the scattering and absorption effects. We propose a new method by defining a microwave polarized index (MPI) to detect dust storm underneath cirrus cloud. We then develop an ntegrated method to detect dust storm by combining the visible, infrared and microwave satellite instruments.
2008年中美首次联合沙尘观测,使用了包括有MFRSR和CIMEL等目前大量先进的气溶胶观测仪器,对我国西北沙尘气溶胶进行了观测。本文利用张掖站观测数据反演了沙尘气溶胶的光学特性。通过MFRSR反演得到的沙尘气溶胶光学厚度与AERONET标准观测一致,二者在0.67μm公共波段误差小于0.02。在假定沙尘粒子形状为球形,分布满足双对数正态分布的情况下,通过调整粒子谱分布中粗、细模态的参数,使Mie计算的光学厚度值与MFRSR观测值的误差平方和达到最小,从而得到了沙尘气溶胶的粒子谱分布。结果表明,沙尘气溶胶的粗模态平均中值半径为2.22μm,细模态平均中值半径为0.137μm,大粒子占粒子分布的主要部分,体积浓度约为小粒子的10倍。通过模式与观测的散射辐射与总辐射比值(DDR方法)的比较,反演了沙尘粒子的单次散射反照率与不对称因子。得到的沙尘单次散射率在0.415μm波段的平均值为0.76,随波长增加而逐步增加到0.86,这一数值小于国内、外关于亚洲和非洲沙尘的相关研究,表明我国西北地区沙尘对可见光实际具有较强的吸收性。同时我们对得的沙尘光学特性做了辐射闭合实验,模式与观测二者日平均直接、散射以及总辐射通量的误差分别为-2.07、-2.90、-8.54W／m2,说明反演得到的沙尘光学特性是合理、可靠的,这为准确计算沙尘气溶胶的直接辐射强迫奠定了坚实基础。
由于考虑到MFRSR观测的是整个半球天空的辐射通量密度,因而假定了沙尘粒子为球形,实际上沙尘粒子是不规则的非球形,为了检验这种假设是否合理,我们用-matrix, IGOM和Mie分别计算了非球形与球形沙尘粒子的光学特性参数,通过比较,发现球形与非球形二者的单次散射反照率、不对称因子、消光效率差别较小,而散射相函数有明显差别,并进一步计算对比了二者对到达地面的太阳辐射通量造成的差异。结果表明球形、非球形沙尘粒子不同的光学特性对到达地表太阳辐射通量的影响不大,从而证明球形粒子的假设对MFRSR反演沙尘光学特征是合理的。同时,利用蒙特卡洛辐射传输方法分析了球形、非球形粒子的前向散射在不同光学厚度、太阳天顶角以及有效粒子半径和复折射指数情况下,对MFRSR反演光学厚度造成的误差。结果表明当光学厚度和气溶胶有效粒子半径小于1时,前向散射造成的误差小于-3%。当光学厚度大于1并且太阳天顶角较大时(>60°),误差能达到-40%。
卫星观测是提供全球气溶胶光学厚度分布以及监测沙尘发生的有效途径。我们通过利用地面观测检验了MISR、MODIS在我国西北亮地表地区反演气溶胶光学厚度的准确性。结果的比较表明,MODIS暗像元业务算法使用近红外通道(2.1和3.8μm)获取地表反照率,并假定近红外通道(2.1μm)与其他两个通道(0.47和0.66μm)的地表反照率的关系,在我国西北地区上空反演得到的气溶胶光学厚度与地面观测存在较大误差。Deep Blue使用了地表反照率较小的蓝光波段(0.412和0.470μm)来剔除地表反射到达卫星的太阳辐射,从而在亮地表地区上空可以较为合理的反演气溶胶光学厚度。MISR从九个不同角度观测,能有效的剔除了地面反射的太阳辐射,在我国西北干旱、半干旱地区反演的气溶胶光学厚度有较高的准确性。
沙尘暴发生时,常常伴随有云的出现(特别是在蒙古气旋活动影响下),可见光和红外技术无法观测到云下的沙尘情况,微波受冰云的衰减较小,对冰云有一定的穿透能力,通过AMSR-E星载微波辐射计观测资料结合微波辐射传输模式的模拟计算,发现沙尘暴对高频微波有较为明显的衰减作用,进而提出了利用高、低频微波极化亮温差指数(MPI)监测沙尘的新方法,并通过可见、红外和微波三种技术方法组合,提供了卫星有效识别、监测沙尘的综合方法。
Dust aerosols, as a major component of aerosols in the atmosphere, can modulate the radiative energy balance of earth-atmosphere system and thus has large effect on the climate. The dust aerosols, which are blown up by strong wind, could also cause a severe havoc to environment and human activities. It is therefore important to fully understand dust aerosol radiative forcing effects on climate and monitor the evolution of dust storm. We developed a method to retrieve dust aerosol optical properties using the ground-based MFRSR measurements. We analyzed the data obtained from the 2008 China-U.S. joint field experiment and retrieved the optical properties of dust aerosols by applying this method. To validate satellite retrievals over Northwest China where the surface is relatively bright, we compared the aerosol optical depth (AOD) products from different satellites/retrieving methods with the AOD from the ground-based observations. We also examined the capability of microwave channels onboard satellite to detect dust storm and propose an integrated method to monitor dust using visible, infrared and microwave channels from the satellite.
Several advanced instruments including MFRSR and CIMEL were deployed in the 2008 China-U.S. joint field experiment. We used the data from the Zhangye site to retrieve dust aerosol optical properties over Northwestren China. The AOD, which we derived from the MFRSR, is consistent with that from CIMEL. The AOD difference between MFRSR and CIMEL is less than 0.02 at 0.67μm wavelength. By assuming a spherical shape of dust particle, we iterate the parameters of size distribution until the RMS differences among the AOD values derived from the observations at five MFRSR channels and those from Mie calculations is minimum. It is found that the mean values of the fine and coarse mode radii are 0.137μm and 2.22μm, respectively. The volume concentration of large particles is 10 times of small particles. We then use the diffuse-to-direct ratio method (DDR) to retrieve the single-scattering albedo (SSA) and asymmetry factor (ASY). The values of SSA, which range from 0.76 at 0.415μm to 0.86 at 0.870μm, are much lower than those derived in Africa and also relatively smaller than those obtained over East Asian. Our results clearly show that the dust aerosol over Northwest China is much more absorptive. We further carry out a radiative closure experiment. The daylight-averaged differences between model and observations are-2.07 Wm-2 for the direct normal flux,-2.90 Wm-2 for the diffuse flux, and-8.54 Wm-2 for the total flux. The good agreement between simulations and measurements indicates that our retrieved dust optical properties are reasonable and reliable.
Since the MFRSR measures the irradiances, the MFRSR retrievals may not be much sensitive to the shape of aerosol particles. We thus assumed that the shape of dust particles is spherical. However, the shapes of dust particles are irregular. In order to test our assumption, we calculate SSA, ASY, extinction efficiency (Qe) and scattering phase function for non-spherical particles using the T-matrix and IGOM methods and spherical dust particles using the Mie code. The differences of SSA, ASY and Qe between spherical and non-spherical particles are very small; however, the scattering phase function of spherical particle is quite different from that of non-spherical particle. Using all these dust optical properties along with the SBDART model to calculate the solar radiative flux reaching at surface, it is found that the solar radiative flux is not sensitive to different particle shapes. Therefore it is reasonable to retrieve dust aerosol optical properties by assuming a spherical shape. We also wrote a Monte Carlo radiative transfer code to examine the AOD error caused by the forward scattering of dust particles. We show that when the AOD values are less than 1, the AOD relative error caused by forward scattering is less than-3%. When the AOD value is greater than 1 with high solar zenith angle (＞60°), the relative error can reach-40%.
Satellite observations are an effective way to provide a regional coverage of aerosol optical depth and monitor the occurrence and evolution of dust storm. We use surface retrieved AOD to validate the MISR and MODIS AOD products over Northwest China where the surface is bright. Our results suggest that MODIS retrieved AOD values are not reliable over semi-arid and arid scenes. This is most likely because the MODIS operational aerosol retrievals over land use the dark-target approach. In this approach the near-infrared (2.1 and 3.8μm) channels are employed to estimate the spectral surface reflectance in order to separate the surface and atmospheric components of the radiance received by the satellite. It also assumes an empirical relationship to deduce surface reflectances at wavelengths of 0.47 and 0.66μm using the remote sensed surface reflectance values at 2.1μm. The AOD based on the Deep Blue algorithm are much improved over the MODIS values because Deep Blue employs two blue channels (0.412 and 0.470μm) in MODIS, for which surface reflectances are relatively small, to infer aerosol properties. MISR provides radiance measurements of the same target at nine different viewing angles. Since MISR can remove the atmospheric path contribution from the surface-leaving radiance by taking advantage of differences in multi-angular signatures, MISR is much less sensitive to surface type and can successfully retrieve AOD over bright surfaces.
The most common dust storms in East Asia are those caused by strong winds behind a cold front and generally coexist with cirrus. For example, the dust storm is especially often stirred up by Mongolian cyclone. The visible and IR techniques thus can not detect dust which is often under cirrus clouds. The microwave is not significantly attenuated by ice clouds and can penetrate ice cloud. We use AMSR-E and a microwave radiative transfer model to analyze dust effects on microwave. Both satellite measurements and model simulations show that dust particles can significantly reduce microwave radiation through the scattering and absorption effects. We propose a new method by defining a microwave polarized index (MPI) to detect dust storm underneath cirrus cloud. We then develop an ntegrated method to detect dust storm by combining the visible, infrared and microwave satellite instruments.
引文
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