政治演讲中的修辞情境分析
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摘要
政治演讲是所有政客的政治生命之水,尤其是当他们处于政治危机时更为重要。政客们措辞严谨因为他们相信语言的力量能够影响人的思想,借此可以在听众无意识状态下欣然接受他们的观点,服从他们的意愿。
奥巴马当选总统为时两年,面对民众对其政府的不满和失望,及2012年的总统竞选的临近,奥巴马发表了2011国情咨文。这篇演讲被视为他继续参选的前奏,对于赢得支持以连任起着至关重要的作用。
修辞情境是当代西方修辞理论的核心概念,任何修辞话语的产生都是以修辞情境为依据的。本文首先探讨了修辞的定义和修辞情境理论,分析了修辞形势的三要素,并指出比彻尔(1968)修辞情境理论的不足,进而将其和袁影(2008)对他的修正进行整合以形成一个新的理论框架。该论文验证了这一理论模式的可行性和有效性并论证了在修辞性交际时适应修辞情境的重要性。
对于政治人物,掌握特定政治时期的紧急事件,分析历史背景,当前事态的严重程度和问题所属领域,那么演讲者就能将自己融入到听众所需要的情境中以有效的改变现状,达到演说的目的。“听众适应论”和“人格投射论”是这篇论文的中心理论,论述了如何“适应”受众从而使其成为改善修辞形势的力量和修辞人格树立的动态特征,以及人们在认识上的某些偏差。在“听众适应论”中,对于听众的适应也就是得到听众认同,拉近修辞者和听众两个独立个体之间的距离以达到“同质”。认同的策略有两种：图尔明的逻辑认同和伯克的情感认同；有效的投射修辞人格以适应修辞情境也是演讲成功的必要因素,修辞者的威望对于说服受众至关重要,可以起到一种“先声夺人”的作用。修辞者应该知道如何适时的展示个人魅力,建立最适合情境的及对自己最有利的修辞人格。
Political speech is considered to be the water of the political life for all politicians, especially when they are in crisis situation. Politicians choose their words carefully because they believe that the power of language can influence thoughts, with which the powerful figure imposes his will under the audiences'unconscious or comfortable condition.
Obama government's inaction in the more than two years provokes people's disappointment and discontent. With 2012 presidential campaign approaching, Obama delivers his 2011 State of the Union Address. This speech is considered to be the prelude to his reelection, which plays extremely important role in winning over his support and striving for serving for another term of office.
Rhetorical situation is the core of present western rhetoric theory. This paper is a tentative study to test a new theoretical model:an integration of Bitzer's (1968) rhetorical situation with Yuan Ying's (2008) modification feasibility and effectiveness. This paper manifests that adapting to the rhetorical situation is of crucial importance for success in rhetorical engagement. Apprehending the local moment and exigence of political times, analyzing the historical backdrop, the seriousness of the current situation and the Guerra, the speaker can fit himself into the desired content as to effectively alter the reality. Audience adaptation should also be paid enough attention. The audience's power in rhetor-audience interaction is easily ignored. Since the rhetor and audience are separate entities, there exists dividedness between them. To skip the distance and gain identification, Toulmin's Argument and Burke's Identification (Identification by Inaccuracy, Identification by Antithesis, and Identification by Sympathy) become the vital rhetorical strategies. Correct perception of ethos is a key in rhetorical practices too. Fashioning the ethos in accordance with the particularity of the situation is inherent in situation adaptation. The rhetor should know how and when to display the tokens to establish an ethos that would best suit the situation and most favorable for him or her.
奥巴马当选总统为时两年,面对民众对其政府的不满和失望,及2012年的总统竞选的临近,奥巴马发表了2011国情咨文。这篇演讲被视为他继续参选的前奏,对于赢得支持以连任起着至关重要的作用。
修辞情境是当代西方修辞理论的核心概念,任何修辞话语的产生都是以修辞情境为依据的。本文首先探讨了修辞的定义和修辞情境理论,分析了修辞形势的三要素,并指出比彻尔(1968)修辞情境理论的不足,进而将其和袁影(2008)对他的修正进行整合以形成一个新的理论框架。该论文验证了这一理论模式的可行性和有效性并论证了在修辞性交际时适应修辞情境的重要性。
对于政治人物,掌握特定政治时期的紧急事件,分析历史背景,当前事态的严重程度和问题所属领域,那么演讲者就能将自己融入到听众所需要的情境中以有效的改变现状,达到演说的目的。“听众适应论”和“人格投射论”是这篇论文的中心理论,论述了如何“适应”受众从而使其成为改善修辞形势的力量和修辞人格树立的动态特征,以及人们在认识上的某些偏差。在“听众适应论”中,对于听众的适应也就是得到听众认同,拉近修辞者和听众两个独立个体之间的距离以达到“同质”。认同的策略有两种：图尔明的逻辑认同和伯克的情感认同；有效的投射修辞人格以适应修辞情境也是演讲成功的必要因素,修辞者的威望对于说服受众至关重要,可以起到一种“先声夺人”的作用。修辞者应该知道如何适时的展示个人魅力,建立最适合情境的及对自己最有利的修辞人格。
Political speech is considered to be the water of the political life for all politicians, especially when they are in crisis situation. Politicians choose their words carefully because they believe that the power of language can influence thoughts, with which the powerful figure imposes his will under the audiences'unconscious or comfortable condition.
Obama government's inaction in the more than two years provokes people's disappointment and discontent. With 2012 presidential campaign approaching, Obama delivers his 2011 State of the Union Address. This speech is considered to be the prelude to his reelection, which plays extremely important role in winning over his support and striving for serving for another term of office.
Rhetorical situation is the core of present western rhetoric theory. This paper is a tentative study to test a new theoretical model:an integration of Bitzer's (1968) rhetorical situation with Yuan Ying's (2008) modification feasibility and effectiveness. This paper manifests that adapting to the rhetorical situation is of crucial importance for success in rhetorical engagement. Apprehending the local moment and exigence of political times, analyzing the historical backdrop, the seriousness of the current situation and the Guerra, the speaker can fit himself into the desired content as to effectively alter the reality. Audience adaptation should also be paid enough attention. The audience's power in rhetor-audience interaction is easily ignored. Since the rhetor and audience are separate entities, there exists dividedness between them. To skip the distance and gain identification, Toulmin's Argument and Burke's Identification (Identification by Inaccuracy, Identification by Antithesis, and Identification by Sympathy) become the vital rhetorical strategies. Correct perception of ethos is a key in rhetorical practices too. Fashioning the ethos in accordance with the particularity of the situation is inherent in situation adaptation. The rhetor should know how and when to display the tokens to establish an ethos that would best suit the situation and most favorable for him or her.
引文
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[2]Beard Adrian. The Language of Politics. Florence:Routledge,2000.
[3]Bell Allan. Language and the Media. Cambridge:CUP,1995.
[4]Bitzer Lloyd. The Rhetorical Situation at Cornell University. Paper presented as a public lecture.1966(2):1-8.
[5]Bitzer Lloyd. The Rhetorical Situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric.1968(1):1-14.
[6]Burke Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. Berkeley:University of California Press,1969.
[7]Burke Kenneth. The Rhetorical Situation. Communication:Ethical and Moral Issues, ed. Lee Thayer. New York:Gorden and Breach Science Publishers,1973.
[8]Campbell George. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Carbondale:Southern Illinois U.P,1963.
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[14]Halliday M A K. An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd edition).Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001.
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[16]Herrick A James. The History and Theory of Rhetoric:An Introduction. Berkeley: University of California Press,1986.
[17]Hodge R.B Fowler, G Kress Trew. Language and Control. London:Routledge,1997.
[18]Lakoff G.eorge, Matthey Johnson. Metaphors We Live by. Chicago and London:The University of Chicago Press,2003.
[19]Landtsheer Christ'l de. Beyond Public Speech and Symbols:Explorations in the Rhetoric of Politicians and the Media. USA:University of Michigan,2008.
[20]Leech N Geoffrey. Principles of Pragmatics. London:Longman,1983.
[21]Leech N Geoffrey, Michael H. Short. Style in Fiction. UK:Lancaster University,1983.
[22]Lucas S Edward. The Art of Public Speaking. McGraw-Hill, Inc:1995:3.
[23]Partington Alan. The Linguistics of Political Argument:the Spin-Doctor and the Wolf-Pack at the White House. New York:Routledge,2003.
[24]Perelman C, Lucie Olbrechts-tyteca. The New Rhetoric:A Treatise on Argumentation. Notre Dame:University of Notre Dame Press,2000.
[25]McNair Brian. An Introduction to Political Communication. New York:Routledge,1999.
[26]Mendell David. Obama:From Promise to Power. Amistad Press,2008.
[27]Smith R Craig, Scott Lybarger. Bitzer's Model Reconstructed.Communication Quarterly. 1996(2):197-213.
[28]Sweetser Eve, Gilles Fauconnier. Spaces, Worlds and Grammar. London:The University of Chicago Press,1996.
[29]Toulmin Stephen. The Uses of Argument. Cambridge:University Press,1958.
[30]Vatz E Richard. The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric. 1973(6):154-161.
[31]Wang Zuoliang. An Introduction to English Stylistics. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research,1987.
[32]Widdowson. Stylistics:An Approach to Stylistics. The Stylistics Reader. Arnold.1996:74.
[33]Wilson Deirdre. Relevance and Understanding. Oxford:Oxford University Press,1994.
[34]Wilson Jeyaratnam. Political Speaking. Oxford:Basil Blackwell, Inc,1994.
[35]Wilson John. Politically Speaking, the Pragmatic Analysis of Political Language. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd,1990.
[36]Wills Christopher. Analysis:Is Obama Ready for World's Toughest Job. New York: Associated press,2008.
[37]Xu Youzhi. Modern English Stylistics. KaiFeng:Henan University Press,1992.
[38]陈颖.布什总统就职演说的及物性分析.湘潭师范学院学报.2008(7)：22-27.
[39]陈中竺.语言与意识形态：批评性语篇分析---对两条罢工新闻的分析.外国语.1995(3)：42-45.
[40]陈平平,郑支农.谈《我有一个梦》的修辞特征——纪念美国民权运动领袖小马丁-路德·金诞辰70周年.外语教学.1988(4)：49-51.
[41]常昌富,顾宝桐(译).当代西方修辞学：演讲与话语批评.北京：中国社会科学出版社,1998.
[42]丁峻.基于语料库的美国总统就职演说研究.天津外国语学院学报.2008(2)：32-34.
[43]代颖.对奥巴马就职演讲的批评话语分析.考试周刊.2009(7)：235-237.
[44]邓志勇,杨涛.英语修辞学与现代西方哲学思潮.外语教学.2001(1)：68-73.
[45]方位津.民权呐喊的最强音——读马丁·路德·金《我有一个梦想》.中学语文教学.2003(2)：30-32.
[46]方小兵.奥巴马竞选演说的新修辞分析：认同策略.广西社会科学.2009(4)：109-112.
[47]樊燕龙,刘瑜.从肯尼斯.伯克修辞理论看演讲话语行为动机.浙江科技学院学报.2009(1)：57-61.
[48]顾曰国.西方古典修辞学和西方新修辞学.外语教学与研究.1990(2)：13-25.
[49]胡曙中.英语修辞学.上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002.
[50]胡曙中.美国新修辞学研究.上海：上海外语教育出版社,1990.
[51]华夏.奥巴马竞选声明的人际功能分析.绥化学院学报.2009(2)：125-127.
[52]黄国文.英语语言问题研究.广州：中山大学出版社,1999.
[53]霍绮琴.竞选总统演说基于人际功能的语篇分析.山西农业大学学报(社会科学版)2006(3)：292-293,297.
[54]刘亚猛.追求象征的力量：关于西方修辞思想的思考.新知三联书店,2004.
[55]李鑫华.伯克新修辞学认同说初探.外语学刊.2001(1)：54-58.
[56]梁文道.奥巴马的胜利是修辞学的胜利仁.南方周末.2008：1-2.
[57]裴振霞.奥巴马获胜演讲的功能文体分析.福建省外国语文学会2008年年会论文集.2008：1-5.
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[2]Beard Adrian. The Language of Politics. Florence:Routledge,2000.
[3]Bell Allan. Language and the Media. Cambridge:CUP,1995.
[4]Bitzer Lloyd. The Rhetorical Situation at Cornell University. Paper presented as a public lecture.1966(2):1-8.
[5]Bitzer Lloyd. The Rhetorical Situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric.1968(1):1-14.
[6]Burke Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. Berkeley:University of California Press,1969.
[7]Burke Kenneth. The Rhetorical Situation. Communication:Ethical and Moral Issues, ed. Lee Thayer. New York:Gorden and Breach Science Publishers,1973.
[8]Campbell George. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Carbondale:Southern Illinois U.P,1963.
[9]Cheney George. Rhetoric in an Organizational Society:Managing Multiple Identities. Columbia, S.C.:University of South Carolina Press,1991.
[10]Chilton P Kevin, Schaffner C. Discourse as Social Interaction. London:SAGE Publications Ltd,1997.
[11]Cicero M Tullius. Selected Political Speeches. Great Britain:Penguin Books Ltd,1969.
[12]Cockcroft Robert, Susan Cockcroft. Persuading People:An Introduction to Rhetoric. London:Macmillan,1992.
[13]Fairclough Norman. Language and Power. London:Routledge,1989.
[14]Halliday M A K. An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd edition).Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001.
[15]Hamilton Cheryl. Essentials of Public Speaking. Belmont [Calif.]:Wadsworth Pub,1999.
[16]Herrick A James. The History and Theory of Rhetoric:An Introduction. Berkeley: University of California Press,1986.
[17]Hodge R.B Fowler, G Kress Trew. Language and Control. London:Routledge,1997.
[18]Lakoff G.eorge, Matthey Johnson. Metaphors We Live by. Chicago and London:The University of Chicago Press,2003.
[19]Landtsheer Christ'l de. Beyond Public Speech and Symbols:Explorations in the Rhetoric of Politicians and the Media. USA:University of Michigan,2008.
[20]Leech N Geoffrey. Principles of Pragmatics. London:Longman,1983.
[21]Leech N Geoffrey, Michael H. Short. Style in Fiction. UK:Lancaster University,1983.
[22]Lucas S Edward. The Art of Public Speaking. McGraw-Hill, Inc:1995:3.
[23]Partington Alan. The Linguistics of Political Argument:the Spin-Doctor and the Wolf-Pack at the White House. New York:Routledge,2003.
[24]Perelman C, Lucie Olbrechts-tyteca. The New Rhetoric:A Treatise on Argumentation. Notre Dame:University of Notre Dame Press,2000.
[25]McNair Brian. An Introduction to Political Communication. New York:Routledge,1999.
[26]Mendell David. Obama:From Promise to Power. Amistad Press,2008.
[27]Smith R Craig, Scott Lybarger. Bitzer's Model Reconstructed.Communication Quarterly. 1996(2):197-213.
[28]Sweetser Eve, Gilles Fauconnier. Spaces, Worlds and Grammar. London:The University of Chicago Press,1996.
[29]Toulmin Stephen. The Uses of Argument. Cambridge:University Press,1958.
[30]Vatz E Richard. The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric. 1973(6):154-161.
[31]Wang Zuoliang. An Introduction to English Stylistics. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research,1987.
[32]Widdowson. Stylistics:An Approach to Stylistics. The Stylistics Reader. Arnold.1996:74.
[33]Wilson Deirdre. Relevance and Understanding. Oxford:Oxford University Press,1994.
[34]Wilson Jeyaratnam. Political Speaking. Oxford:Basil Blackwell, Inc,1994.
[35]Wilson John. Politically Speaking, the Pragmatic Analysis of Political Language. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd,1990.
[36]Wills Christopher. Analysis:Is Obama Ready for World's Toughest Job. New York: Associated press,2008.
[37]Xu Youzhi. Modern English Stylistics. KaiFeng:Henan University Press,1992.
[38]陈颖.布什总统就职演说的及物性分析.湘潭师范学院学报.2008(7)：22-27.
[39]陈中竺.语言与意识形态：批评性语篇分析---对两条罢工新闻的分析.外国语.1995(3)：42-45.
[40]陈平平,郑支农.谈《我有一个梦》的修辞特征——纪念美国民权运动领袖小马丁-路德·金诞辰70周年.外语教学.1988(4)：49-51.
[41]常昌富,顾宝桐(译).当代西方修辞学：演讲与话语批评.北京：中国社会科学出版社,1998.
[42]丁峻.基于语料库的美国总统就职演说研究.天津外国语学院学报.2008(2)：32-34.
[43]代颖.对奥巴马就职演讲的批评话语分析.考试周刊.2009(7)：235-237.
[44]邓志勇,杨涛.英语修辞学与现代西方哲学思潮.外语教学.2001(1)：68-73.
[45]方位津.民权呐喊的最强音——读马丁·路德·金《我有一个梦想》.中学语文教学.2003(2)：30-32.
[46]方小兵.奥巴马竞选演说的新修辞分析：认同策略.广西社会科学.2009(4)：109-112.
[47]樊燕龙,刘瑜.从肯尼斯.伯克修辞理论看演讲话语行为动机.浙江科技学院学报.2009(1)：57-61.
[48]顾曰国.西方古典修辞学和西方新修辞学.外语教学与研究.1990(2)：13-25.
[49]胡曙中.英语修辞学.上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002.
[50]胡曙中.美国新修辞学研究.上海：上海外语教育出版社,1990.
[51]华夏.奥巴马竞选声明的人际功能分析.绥化学院学报.2009(2)：125-127.
[52]黄国文.英语语言问题研究.广州：中山大学出版社,1999.
[53]霍绮琴.竞选总统演说基于人际功能的语篇分析.山西农业大学学报(社会科学版)2006(3)：292-293,297.
[54]刘亚猛.追求象征的力量：关于西方修辞思想的思考.新知三联书店,2004.
[55]李鑫华.伯克新修辞学认同说初探.外语学刊.2001(1)：54-58.
[56]梁文道.奥巴马的胜利是修辞学的胜利仁.南方周末.2008：1-2.
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