宗教的虚拟化传播与国家安全研究
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摘要
自20世纪60年代,特别是冷战结束以来,在世界宗教的发展历程中逐渐表现出的三个主要趋势。即：第一,无论是传统的建制宗教,还是新兴教派,在世界范围内都经历着新一轮的迅速增长；第二,宗教因素日益渗透或者“回归”至国际关系和安全视域之中。它一方面能够成为冲突爆发和恶化的推动因素；另一方面,宗教领袖、宗教组织,以及教徒个人,都在积极地为世界的和平与繁荣贡献着自己的力量；第三,宗教信仰与以互联网为代表的信息技术日益紧密地结合,产生了一种新型宗教传播方式和新的宗教表现形式——宗教的虚拟化传播和“网上宗教”。基于这三个趋势,本文认为,在宗教安全化和社会信息化的双重作用下,宗教的虚拟化传播将会对国家安全产生影响。而本文的主要目的,就是尝试综合运用国际政治学、宗教学、传播学及心理学相关知识,探讨宗教的虚拟化传播对国家安全的影响。
为此,本文的主体将分为四部分。第一部分主要通过分析宗教的本质和互联网技术的特点,并结合国家和国际社会进入非传统安全时代的大背景,进而提出宗教的虚拟化传播影响国家安全的三条途径；第二部分侧重理论探讨,通过结合传播学中的受众和传播效果理论详细分析途径一。即,宗教的虚拟化传播,能够放大宗教中的非理性；第三部分转入现实分析,通过考察伊斯兰极端主义者和恐怖主义者,尤其是“基地”组织和“东突”组织的互联网应用,来探讨途径二。即,宗教的虚拟化传播,在客观上便利了宗教极端活动；第四部分从互联网的工具性出发,提出国家安全主体利用宗教虚拟化传播的趋势,维护国家安全的必要性,并着重探讨第三条途径。即,宗教的虚拟化传播,可以为国家安全的维护提供新思路和新方法。
虽然目前宗教的虚拟化传播趋势对国家安全的消极影响相对突出,但这种消极影响并不是绝对意义上的。而且更重要的是,决定宗教虚拟化传播总体方向的宗教信仰,对安全也有维护和促进作用。同时,在现代国际关系中,宗教往往只是引发冲突的众多因素中的一个,当它对国家安全产生消极影响时,通常也并不是最基本的决定性要素,加之互联网本身只是一种价值中立的工具。所以,宗教的虚拟化传播对国家安全的影响也将是双向的。
The cyber-based religion mainly is that the religious organizations and believers make use of the internet for religious activities, and a new form of religion, besides that, it also conludes nonreligious activities, which closely relates with religion. It begun in the middle of 80s of last century, and in recent years, especially the first ten years of the new century, it has increased sharply and become one of the most notable trends of nearly all kinds of religions.
The cyber-based religion has effect the national security like a double-edged sword. For the negative influences, it could magnify the irrationality of religions, through the ways as follows:
Firstly, the cyber-based religion leads to the group polarization of religious organizations and believers to affirm their irrationality, and it could cause extreme activities.
Secondly, it could bring on conformity, and its dynamics are informational social influence and normative social influence, the former is that people want to achieve confirmation and balance, when they find themselves in uncertain occasions, so they lean to conform to others, escepcially others were the respected or the beloved ones; the latter is that people have to obey the rules of human society, if they want to be appreciated by others.
Thirdly, the internet could be utilized as a convenient tool to spread the extreme religious ideas; what's more, the cyberspace could be a platform for the religious extremists and terrorists'activities.
For the positive ones, under the current trend of cyber-based religion, the government can make use of the internet to form the common ideas of common interests with the believers, and the common interests are the base of the harmony relations between the nation and the religious organizations and their believers; furthermore, the cyberspace could be a new battlefield for combating with the religious extremists and terrorists.
However, the managements have fallen behind the pace of the cyber-based religion; for example, there are not enough professionals who major in religion science and IT, and the measures are too rough and simple to cope with the complicated situation well. In all words, the challenges and questions will not be solved only by shutting them down, and the flexible and self-regulated ones will be better.
为此,本文的主体将分为四部分。第一部分主要通过分析宗教的本质和互联网技术的特点,并结合国家和国际社会进入非传统安全时代的大背景,进而提出宗教的虚拟化传播影响国家安全的三条途径；第二部分侧重理论探讨,通过结合传播学中的受众和传播效果理论详细分析途径一。即,宗教的虚拟化传播,能够放大宗教中的非理性；第三部分转入现实分析,通过考察伊斯兰极端主义者和恐怖主义者,尤其是“基地”组织和“东突”组织的互联网应用,来探讨途径二。即,宗教的虚拟化传播,在客观上便利了宗教极端活动；第四部分从互联网的工具性出发,提出国家安全主体利用宗教虚拟化传播的趋势,维护国家安全的必要性,并着重探讨第三条途径。即,宗教的虚拟化传播,可以为国家安全的维护提供新思路和新方法。
虽然目前宗教的虚拟化传播趋势对国家安全的消极影响相对突出,但这种消极影响并不是绝对意义上的。而且更重要的是,决定宗教虚拟化传播总体方向的宗教信仰,对安全也有维护和促进作用。同时,在现代国际关系中,宗教往往只是引发冲突的众多因素中的一个,当它对国家安全产生消极影响时,通常也并不是最基本的决定性要素,加之互联网本身只是一种价值中立的工具。所以,宗教的虚拟化传播对国家安全的影响也将是双向的。
The cyber-based religion mainly is that the religious organizations and believers make use of the internet for religious activities, and a new form of religion, besides that, it also conludes nonreligious activities, which closely relates with religion. It begun in the middle of 80s of last century, and in recent years, especially the first ten years of the new century, it has increased sharply and become one of the most notable trends of nearly all kinds of religions.
The cyber-based religion has effect the national security like a double-edged sword. For the negative influences, it could magnify the irrationality of religions, through the ways as follows:
Firstly, the cyber-based religion leads to the group polarization of religious organizations and believers to affirm their irrationality, and it could cause extreme activities.
Secondly, it could bring on conformity, and its dynamics are informational social influence and normative social influence, the former is that people want to achieve confirmation and balance, when they find themselves in uncertain occasions, so they lean to conform to others, escepcially others were the respected or the beloved ones; the latter is that people have to obey the rules of human society, if they want to be appreciated by others.
Thirdly, the internet could be utilized as a convenient tool to spread the extreme religious ideas; what's more, the cyberspace could be a platform for the religious extremists and terrorists'activities.
For the positive ones, under the current trend of cyber-based religion, the government can make use of the internet to form the common ideas of common interests with the believers, and the common interests are the base of the harmony relations between the nation and the religious organizations and their believers; furthermore, the cyberspace could be a new battlefield for combating with the religious extremists and terrorists.
However, the managements have fallen behind the pace of the cyber-based religion; for example, there are not enough professionals who major in religion science and IT, and the measures are too rough and simple to cope with the complicated situation well. In all words, the challenges and questions will not be solved only by shutting them down, and the flexible and self-regulated ones will be better.
引文
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11该数字于2011年4月2日通过Yahoo(中国)搜索得出,虽然Yahoo搜索在中国的市场占有率远低于Baidu和Google,但雅虎是世界上第一个相对完善和成熟,并且具有强大搜索结果分类功能。而在网络空间中为了增加点击率、吸引注意力,以宗教为名,实则进行纯商业活动,或其他与宗教根本无关,只是由于于程序语言设计上的缺陷而搜索出的网站和网页,大量充斥于互联网上的情况下,给精确统计宗教网站的实际数目带来了不必要的干扰,而Yahoo的搜索结果分类功能则恰好解决了这一问题。
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84同上书：37.
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87牛津高阶英汉双解词典[M].北京：商务印书馆.2006：1841.
88同上书 426.
89[英]巴里·布赞,迪·怀尔德著,朱宁泽.新安全论[M].杭州：浙江人民出版社,2003：7-12.
90可参见第一部分“选题背景”
91据2011年1月,中国互联网络信息中心(CNNIC)发布的《第27次中国红联网络发展状况统计报告》显示,截止至2010年12月,我国网民规模已达4.57亿。其中,宽带网民数为4.5亿：农村网民1.25亿,比2009年增长了16.9%;使用手机上网的网民也已达到3.03亿,占网民总数的的66.2%；互联网普及率攀升至34.3%。
92[美]斯蒂芬·范埃弗拉著,陈琪译.政治学研究方法指南(译序)[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2006：5.
1 Peter Mangold. National Security and International Relations[M]. London and New York: Routledge,1990:2.转引自：李少军.国际政治学概论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2002：147.
2王逸舟.重视非传统安全研究[N].人民日报,2003年5月21日：第7版.
3李小华.中国安全观分析[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2008：28.
4 Susanne Hoeber Rudolph and James Piscatori. eds. Transnational Religion and Fading States[M]. New York:Westview Press,1997:6.
5[意]F·佩多蒂,[英]P.哈兹波罗编,张新樟等译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：69.
6张志刚.宗教哲学研究——当代观念、关键环节及其方法论批判[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：472.关于理性与宗教信仰的关系问题,除上书外,还可参见：张志刚.理性的；彷徨——现代西方宗教哲学理性观比教[M].北京：东方出版社.1997.
7[美]威廉·詹姆斯著,尚新建译.宗教经验种种[M].北京：华夏出版社,2008：271.
8同上书：306-307.
9在詹姆斯看来,“个人的宗教”的落脚点是人本身,表现为个人对“上帝”或者某种“终极实在”产生感情、体会等以及由此产生地特定行为,是个人与神圣对象之间超越其他中介的,直接发生的关系：而“制度的宗教”重视的是神性,主要表现为崇拜、献祭、神学、仪式和教会等。
10[美]威廉·詹姆斯著,尚新建泽.宗教经验种种[M].北京：华夏出版社,2008：22.
11同上书：53-54.
12同上书：312-314.
13同上书：331.
41详见[德]鲁道夫·奥托著,成穷,周邦宪译.论“神圣”[M].成都：四川人民出版社,2003：1-5.
15这是奥托自认为与其思想导师之一的弗里德里希·施莱尔马赫(Friedrich D.E. Schleliermacher)的主要区别,奥托认为其研究的起点是“神圣者”本身,这是一种超越性的客观存在,而不是施莱尔马赫所说的对神的“绝对依赖感”。他认为,施氏的不当之处在于把对神的感觉、体会、情感等主观反应作为研究的出发点。施氏的思想主要见于《On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers》和《The Christian Faith》.
16[德]鲁道夫·奥托著,成穷,周邦宪译.论“神圣”[M].成都：四川人民出版社,2003：7.
17同上书：7.
18[美]麦克·彼得森,威廉·哈斯克等著,孙毅,游斌译.理性与宗教信念——宗教哲学导论(第三版)[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2005：59-60.
19同上书：60.
20[英]勃兰特·罗素著,沈海康.为什么我不是基督徒[M].北京：商务印书馆,1982：27.
21马克思恩格斯全集(第三卷)[M].北京：人民出版社,1996：666-667.
22 Paul Tillich.Dynamics of Faith[M].Happer & Row,Publishers,1957:77转引自张志刚.宗教哲学研究——当代观念、关键环节及其方法论批判[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：558.
23同上书：578.
24同上书：548.
25详见[瑞士]汉斯·昆著,杨德友.论基督徒(上)[M].上海：三联书店,1995：74.
26 Hans Kung.Theology for the Third Millennium:An Ecumenical View[M].William Collins Sons & Co., Ltd. and Doubleday,1988:202-203转引自张志刚自张志刚.宗教哲学研究——当代观念、关键环节及其办法论批判[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：525.
27瑞十]汉斯·昆著,杨德友.论基督徙(上)[M].上海：三联书店,1995：55.
28 Hans Kung. Theology for the Third Millennium:An Ecumenical View[M]. William Collins Sons & Co., Ltd. and Doubleday,1988:202-203转引自张志刚自张志刚.宗教哲学研究当代观念、关键环节及其方法论批判[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：525.
29同上书：526.
30[美]包尔丹著, 陶飞亚,刘义等译.宗教的七种理论[M].上海：上海古籍出版社,2005：41.
31陈麟书,陈霞.宗教学原理[M].北京：宗教文化出版社,1999：77.
32[美]罗德尼·斯达克,罗杰尔·芬克著,杨凤岗.信仰的法则[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2004：53.
33同上书：103.
34参见：蔡开裕,范金鹏.计算机网络[M].北京：机械工业出版社,2002：2.
35同上书：3.
36详见上书：5-6.
37[美]曼纽尔·卡斯特著,曹荣湘译.认同的力量(第二版)[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2006：158.
38参见：蔡翠红.信息网络与国际政治[M].上海：学林出版社,2003：16-17.
39可参见本文第二部分中的“对‘网上宗教’的理论探讨”
40 H. Rheingold. The Virtual Community[M]. New York:Harper Perennial,1993:134-135.
41 T. Matthew Ciolek. Online religion:the Internet and religion[A]. in H. Bidgoli. ed., The Internet encyclopedia[M]. Hoboken:John Wiley & Sons, Inc,2004:798-811.
42具体可参见海蒂·坎贝尔(Heidi Campbell)、艾瑞克·戴维斯(Eric Davis)、马查·奈特迈尔(M. Macha Nightmare)等学者的相关著作。H. Campbell, A review of religious computer-mediated communication research[A]. in J. Mitchell & S. Marriage Eds. Mediating religion:Conversations in media, culture and religion[M]. Edinburgh:T & T Clark/Continuum. 2003:213-228.; E. Davis. Techno-pagans:May the astral plane be reborn in cyberspace. www.wired.com/wired/archive/3.07/technopagans.html; M.Macha Nightmare. Witchcraft and the web:Weaving pagan traditions online[M]. Ontario:ECW Press.2001.
43 Joshua C.R. Chama. Finding God on the web[J], in TIME,1996,149(1):52-59.
44 Elena Larsen. Internet resources are aids for the deeply devout[R]. December 23,2001. Pew Internet and American Life Project. http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/36/press_release.asp. accessed on October 5,2008.
45 Cyber-Faith:How Americans Pursue Religion Online. Dec.2001. http://www.pewlnternet.org/; Faith Online:64% of wired Americans have used the Internet for spiritual or religious purposes Jul.2004 http://www.pewInternet.org/. accessed on October 5,2008
46参见：中国互联网络信息中心(CNNIC)第27次中国互联网络发展状况统计报[R].2011：12.
47刘金光.国际互联网与宗教渗透[J].中国宗教,2003(8)：27.
48作者使用Yahoo (中国)搜索于2011年3月搜的：基督教,3,114,462个；天主教,1,552,889个。
49参见：中国互联网络信息中心(CNNIC)第27次中国互联网络发展状况统计报[R].2011：24-25.
50需要指出的是,这些网站和网页绝大多数是中国境内,以及港澳台等汉语文化圈中的宗教组织、与宗教有关的部门和个人建立的,还有一部分是海外宗教团体创建的,用来对华宣传主的中文网站。除此之外,还包括有些为吸引网民注意,而冠之以某种宗教名称的商业性网站和网页,但这只占其总数的极小一部分,绝大多仍然包含在本文界定宗教的虚拟化传播时,所列举的那十余类之中。所以,这些商业性的网站可以忽略不计。需要指出的是,这三组数字是通过网民常用的搜索引擎检索得出的,分别是,百度、谷歌(中国)和雅虎(中国)。之所以选择这三个,主要是根据中国互联网络信息中心发布的《2007年中国搜索引擎市场调查报告》一文的统计结果。即,全国搜索用户的首选搜索工具是百度,占74.5%；其次是谷歌,占14.3%；雅虎占2.1%,列第四位,比第三位的搜狐搜狗少0.7%。之所以选择雅虎,是因为雅虎是世界上第一个相对完善、成熟,并有强大分类功能的搜索引擎。而选择中文搜索工具,是由于中文宗教网站和网页,主要面向以中文为母语的群体为受众。
51该数字由本文于2009年8月,利用QQ群组搜索功能得出。
52参见：http://andehan.home.sunbo.net/show_hdr.php?xname=CRTPV01&dname=5FQ2011&xpos.2009年1月20日登陆。
53所谓“群体极化”现象是指,“团体成员—开始即有某些偏向,在商议后,人们朝偏向的方向继续移动,最后形成极端的观点。”本文将在第二章第二节中,对其进行详细论述。此外,关于互联网如何诱发“群体极化”,以及‘群体极化”给社会带来的后果。可参见[美]凯斯·桑斯坦著,黄维明译.网络共和国——网络社会中的民主问题[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003.
54金宜久,吴云贵.当代宗教与极端主义[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008：导言4.
55参见上书：164.
56同上书：174.
57[美]伊恩·莱赛等著,程克雄译.反新恐怖主义[M].北京：新华出版社,2002：93-94.
58同上书：61-62.
59 The International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research. China Under Threat: Ethnic Tensions and Terrorism [J]. in Counter Terrorism Trends Analysis. Vol.2, No.8, August 2008:2-3.
60 Forward by Joseph S. Nye. Jr. from Ryan Henry and C.E. Peartree, eds. The Information Revolution and International Security[M]. Washington D.C:The CSIS Press,1998.
1相关论述可参见[美]威廉·巴雷特著,段德智译.非理性的人——存在主义哲学研究[M].上海：上海译文出版社,2007.
2对于宗教经验的界定,以及宗教经验和宗教信念究竟谁更根本,至今仍是学者们争论最多的话题之一。但尽管争论如此激烈,对宗教经验的解释,主要可归为四类：首先,认为宗教经验主要是一种情感,代表人物为施莱尔马赫,奥托以及詹姆斯等：其次,认为宗教经验是人潜意识的反应,并以其为原型,主要代表人物是弗洛伊德和卡尔·荣格(Carl Gustav Jung);再次,认为宗教经验主要是一种感知或感觉,代表人物为威廉·阿斯顿(William Alston);最后,认为宗教经验是以宗教信念为根据,而对宗教本身所做的解释,代表人物为韦恩·普劳夫特(Wayne Proudfoot)
3[英]大卫·休谟著,徐晓宏译.宗教的自然史[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：13-14.详细论述可参见该书第二、三章。
4[美]麦克·彼得森,威廉·哈斯克等著,孙毅,游斌译.理性与宗教信念——宗教哲学导论(第三版)[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2005：40.
5详细论证过程可参见F. N. Watts. Psychological and Religious Perspectives on Emotion[J]. in International Journal for the Psychology of Religion.1996(6):71-78.
6 Robert N. Bellah. Beyond Belief. New York:Harper & Row.1970, P20.
7[英]麦克·阿盖尔著陈彪译《宗教心理学导论》中国人民大学出版社2005年,P83.
8详细数据可参见D. Hutsebaut and D. Verhoeven. Studying Dimensions of God Representation: Choosing Closed or Open Ended Research Questions. in International Journal for the Psychology of Religion.9.1995, P49-60.
9[英]麦克·阿盖尔著,陈彪译.宗教心理学导论[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2005：100.
10关于“信仰之悖论”的详细解释,可参见[丹]克尔凯郭尔著,刘继译.恐惧与颤栗[M].贵阳：贵州人民出版社,1994.
11本文所述的传播“五要素”,是指1948年由美国政治学家哈罗德·拉斯韦尔(Harold Lasswell)所提出的,用来描述一个传播行为的五个基本组成部分,即：传播者、信息、媒介、接收者和效果。
12[英]丹尼斯·麦奎尔著,崔保国,李琨译.麦奎尔大众传播理论[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2006：36.
13详细可参见Gerard T. Schoening and James A. Anderson. Social Action Media Studies: Foundational Arguments and Common Premises[J]. in Communication Theory.1995(5):93-116.
14[英]丹尼斯·麦令尔.刘燕南,李颖等.受众分析[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006：37-4].
15详细可参见Frank A. Biocca. Opposing Conceptions of the Audience[J]. in J. Anderson ed., Communication Yearbook 11. Newbury Park:Sage Publications,1988:51-80.
16有关传播关系的四种模式：训示型、咨询型、对话型和注册型的详细论述,可参见J.L. Bordewijk and B. van Kaam. Towards A New Classification of Tele-information Services[J]. in Intermedia.14(1),1986:16-21.
17参见董璐.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2008：182-183.
18[美]理查德·韦斯特,林恩·H·特纳著,刘海龙.传播理论导引：分析与应用[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2007：137-139.
19参见[英]丹尼斯·麦奎尔著,刘燕南、李颖等译.受众分析[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006：95-98.
20[德]托马斯·卢克曼著,覃方明译.无形的宗教——现代社会中的宗教问题[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：6-7.
21戴康生、彭耀主编.宗教社会学[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2007：39.
22唐名辉.网络宗教生活对基督教徒的宗教性的影响——以长沙市在线基督徒的宗教生活为实证研究基础[J].宗教学研究,2008,2：114-115.
23本笃十六.司铎和数码世界中的牧民服务：新媒体为圣言服务.梵蒂冈教廷官方网站：http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/messages/communications/documents/hf_ben-xv i_mes_20100124_44th-world-communications-day_en.html. accessed on March 5,2010.
24[德]格奥尔格·西美尔著,曹卫东译.宗教社会学[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：5.
25 Sonia Livingstone. Critical debates in internet studies:reflections on an emerging field. London:LSE Research Online:http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/1011. Available in LSE Research Online: July 2007. accessed on October 20,2009.
26 Elena Larsen. Wired Churches, Wired Temples:Taking Congregations and Missions into Cyberspace. Washington, DC:Pew Internet and American Life Project: http://www.pewinternet.org/reports/toc.asp?Report=28. accessed on October 5,2008.
27对此,心理学家米尔顿·罗基奇(Milton Rokeach)故过相关论述,他发现,在朋友选择方面,共同的信仰比共同的种更重要。可参见Milton Rokeach. The Open and Closed Mind [M]. New York:Basic Books,1960.
28戴康生,彭耀.宗教社会学[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2007：84.
29 Rodney Stark and Roger Finke. Acts of Faith:Explaining the Human Side of Religion [M]. Los Angelse:University of California Press,2000:113.
30 Heidi Campbell. A Review of Religious Computer-Mediated Communication Research, in J. Mitchell & S. Marriage, eds. Mediating religion:Conversations in media, culture and religion[M]. Edinburgh:T & T Clark/Continuum,2003:213-228.
31 Heidi Campbell. Religion and the Internet [J]. in Communication Research Trends. Vol.25, No.1,2006:14.
32参见Elena Larsen, etc. CyberFaith:How Americans Pursue Religion Online. Washington, DC Pew Internet & American Life Project:http://www.pewlnternet.org/reports/, released on December 23 2001:3.and Stewart M. Hoover, Lynn S. Clark, and Lee Rainie. Faith online:64% of wired Americans have used the Internet for spiritual or religious information. Washington, DC: Pew Internet and American Life Project:http://www.pewlnternet.org/reports/. accessed on October 5,2008.
33参见Rob Nyland and Chris Near. Jesus is My Friend:Religiosity as a Mediating Factor in Internet Social Networking Use [A]. Paper Presented at the AEJMC Midwinter Conference, in Reno, Nevada, Feb 23-24,2007:2.
34事实上,一般意义上的“群体极化”现象,有两种表现形式：其一,经过讨论后,某群体做出的决定比其成员个人在参与群体讨论前,所做出的决定要冒险。这种情况可称为“风险转移”(risky shift),或者“冒险性群体极化”；其二,就某些特定决定而言,群体也可能做出比个人更加谨慎的决定。这可称为“谨慎转移”(cautious shift),或者“谨慎性群体极化”。它们都是一般意义上的“群体诱发态度极化”(group-induced attitude polarization)现象的两种特例。详见可见：Daniel J. Isenberg. Group polarization:a critical review and meta-analysis [J]. in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol.50, No.6,1986:1141。本文认为,在现实中,人们谈到“群体极化”现象时,更多地关注和担心的是“冒险性群体极化”,而对“谨慎性群体极化”的关注则相对较少,这主要是因为具有“冒险性群体极化”倾向的群体给社会带来的负面影响,要远比具有“谨慎性群体极化”倾向的群体更现实,更有危害性。而判断某群体具有哪种“群体极化”倾向的主要依据之 ,就是该群体或组织内早已预先设定或占优势的意见气候和舆论氛围。例如,宗教极端组织,为表达某种不满或回应外界压力而进行商议,经过讨论后,做出恐怖袭击决定的可能性,要远大于自由派或温和派的宗教组织。所以,在本文中,除特殊注明外,单独的“群体极化”一词,都是指“冒险性群体极化”。
35参见James A. F. Stoner. A comparison of individual and group decisions under risk, (Unpublished Master's Thesis) [D]. Cambridge:Massachusetts Institute of Technology, School of Management,1961.
36参见注释95。
37参见Allen I. Teger and Dean G. Pruitt. Components of group risk taking[J]. in Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol.3,1967:189-205.
38参见Serge Moscovici and Marisa Zavalloni. The group as a polarizer of attitudes[J]. in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol.12,1969:125-135.
39 David.G. Myers and George D.Bishop. The Enhancement of Dominant Attitudes in Group Discussion [J].in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol.20,1976:286.
40引自[美]戴维·迈尔斯著,侯玉波,乐国安等译.社会心理学[M].北京：人民邮电出版社,2006：223.
41具体数据及分析过程详见乐媛,杨伯溆.网络极化现象研究——基于四个中文BBS论坛的内容分析[J].青年研究,2010.2：1-12.
42详见[美]埃里克·H·埃里克森著,孙名之译.同一性：青少年与危机[M].杭州：浙江教育出版社,2005：9.
43“沉默的螺旋”现象,是传播学中关于传播效果研究的一个关键理论。本章的下一节将对其进行详细解释。
44乐国安编著.社会心理学[M].广州：广东高等教育出版社,2006：419.
45关于对一般意义上的“群体极化”现象的解释和证明,以及延伸阅读资料,可参见Daniel J.Isenberg. Group polarization:a critical review and meta-analysis [J]. in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol.50, No.6,1986:1141-1151.
46详见注释106。
47参见Cass R. Sunstein. The Law of Group polarization [J]. in The Journal of Political Psychology, vol.10, No.2,2002:177.
48[美]戴维·迈尔斯著,侯玉波,乐国安等译.社会心理学[M].北京：人民邮电出版社,2006：224.
49参见Roger Brown. Social psychology, (Second Edition) [M]. New York:Free Press,1985. quoted in Cass R. Sunstein. Neither Hayek nor Habermas [J]. in Public Choice.134,2002:93.
50详见本章第一节。
51 Brooke Harrington. The Pervasive Effect of Embeddedness in Organizations [A], unpublished manuscript,2000:24.
52 Jan Fernback. Internet Ritual:A Case Study of the Construction of Computer-Mediated Neopagan Religious Meaning [A], in Stewart M. Hoover and Lynn S. Clark, eds. Practicing Religion in the Age of the Media[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2002:267.
53参见Sara Horsfall. "How Religious Organizations Use the Internet:A Preliminary Inquiry [A]. in Jeffrey K. Hadden and Douglas E. Cowan, eds. Religion on the Internet:Research Prospects and Promises[M]. New York:JAI,2000:153-182.
54彭兰.网络传播学[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009：96.
55同上书：85.
56参见Patricia Wallace. T psychology of the Internet [M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1999:73-84.
57 Cass R. Sunstein. Neither Hayek nor Habermas [J]. in Public Choice.134,2002:93.
58[美]戴维·迈尔斯著,侯玉波,乐国安等译.社会心理学[M].北京：人民邮电出版社,2006：224.
59有关自杀式恐怖袭击的之原因的分析,可参见：Mohammed M. Hafez. Manufacturing Human Bombs:The Making of Palestinian Suicide Bombers[M]. Washington, D.C.:United States Institute of Peace.2006.; Jeff Victoroff and Arie W. Kruglanski. eds. Psychology of Terrorism: Classic and Contemporary Insights[M].Hove:Psychology Press.2009:87-194.等。
60互联网传播的效果可以从传播效应和作用效果两个层次去衡量。首先,传播效应,主要包括放大效应、聚变效应、催化效应、裂变效应,以及削弱效应等。本文主要涉及前三种,放大效应是指网络传播可以将一件小事或小话题的影响不断放大,直至最后在整个虚拟空间中,甚至是整个现实社会中产生影响。放大效应要求被传播对象本身要足够引起多数受众的关注,并主要通过信息被每个接收者增殖性地频繁转载、扩散,同时伴随着频繁的意见传播来实现。聚变效应指互联网传播可以将一些弱小的话题或声音聚集起来,汇聚成-股强大的意见流,在此过程中,单独弱小声音的能量将发生本质性的增大,进而促使整体意见变得更加强大。催化效应则指一个事件或话题,在互联网的增殖、扩散性传播的催化和推动下,性质发生了根本性变化,如,苏丹达尔富尔地区的冲突,本来仅限于苏丹国内,但通过互联网传播渠道的扩散与渲染后,世界各国在一定程度上都了解到了当地冲突的惨烈,加之整体国际政治博弈因素的参与,使该问题迅速由国内问题演变成国际问题。其次,作用效果,即信息到达受众后所引起的反应,主要包括引起其注意的程度,激发其接收的程度和影响其态度、行为的程度等。而本文认为决定—系列反应程度的主要因素是受众对该信息源及其所发出的信息的了解,接受以及认同情况。所以当教徒通过互联网接收到宗教组织或领袖发出的信息时,由于其对宗教信仰本身及其附属物的情感和认同,教徒对宗教信息的注意、接收,以及信息影响教徒态度、行为的程度都要大于其接收到—般信息时的反应程度。详细可参见：彭兰.网络传播学[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009：381-385.
61有关传播效果研究的历史演变进程可参见[美]詹宁斯·布莱恩特、苏珊·汤普森著,陆剑南等译.传媒效果概论[M].北京：中国传媒大学出版社,2006：30-53.以及董璐.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2008：261-263.
62[美]希伦·A-各厄里、梅尔文·L·德福勒著,刘海龙等译.大众传播效果研究的里程碑(第三版)[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2004：13.
63董璐.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2008：230.
64参见Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. Return to the Concept of Powerful Mass Media [J]. in Studies of Broadcasting, vol.9,1973:66-112.
65[英]丹尼斯·麦奎尔著,崔保国、李琨译.麦奎尔大众传播理论[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2006：357.
66群体分为初级群体、次级群体和社会组织。社会组织是群体的最高级形式,是指人们为了实现某种共同目标,进行彼此协调与合作的社会团体。其具体释义和区别可参见：郑杭生.社会学概论新修(第三版)[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：146-165：191-216.在本文中,在线宗教组织,是各种在线宗教群体中的主要形式。
67参见Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. The Spiral of Silence:A Theory of Public Opinion [J]. in Journal of Communication, vol.24,1974:24-51.
68 Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. The Spiral of Silence:Public Opinion-our Social Skin (2nd ed.) [M].Chicago:University of Chicago Press.1993:272转引自[美]理查德·韦斯特、林恩·H·特纳著,刘海龙译.传播理论导引：分析与应用[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2007：457.
69董璐.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2008：245.
70参见[美]Elliot Aronson、 Timothy D. Wilson、Robin M. Akert著,侯玉波等译.社会心理学(第五版,中文第二版)[M].北京：中国轻工业出版社,2007：209-210.
71详见[美]理查德·韦斯特、林恩·H·特纳著,刘海龙译.传播理论导引：分析与应用[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2007：457-461.
72彭兰.网络传播学[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009：403.
73戴康生,彭耀.宗教社会学[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2007：91.
74参见陈麟书、陈霞.宗教学原理(新版)[M].北京：宗教文化出版社,1999：86-87.
75郑杭生.社会学概论新修(第三版)[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：150.
76乐国安.社会心理学[M].广州：广东高等教育出版社,2006：461.
77[美]Elliot Aronson、 Timothy D. Wilson、Robin M. Akert著,侯玉波等译.社会心理学(第五版,中文第二版)[M].北京：中国轻工业出版社,2007： 214.
78详见上书：223.
79详见[法]古斯塔夫·勒庞著,冯克利译.鸟合之众——大众心理研究[M].北京：中央编泽出版社,2005：53.
80同上书：52.
81同上书：132.
82[美]Elliot Aronson、 Timothy D. Wilson、Robin M. Akert著,侯玉波等译.社会心理学(第五版,中文第二版)[M].北京：中国轻工业出版社,2007：208.
83同上术：215.
84关于“去个体化”和“群体思维”及案例的详细论述,可参见上书：248-256.
1 Aaron Weisburd. The Shifting Sands of the Global Jihad Online[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[M]. Amsterdam: IOS Press,2007:165.
2参见：张家栋.现代恐怖主义的四次浪潮[J].国际观察,2007(6)：36.
3对于该问题,目前宗教学者们的研究相对比较深入。具体可参见：金宜久,吴云贵.当代宗教与极端主义[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008.；吴云贵.伊斯兰原教旨主义、宗教极端主义及国际恐怖主义辨析[J].国外社会科学,2002(1).
4[美]曼纽尔·卡斯特著,曹荣湘译.认同的力量(第二版)[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2006：12.
5详细可参见：Jeffrey Haynes. Introduction to International Relations and Religion[M]. London: Pearson Education Limited.2007:199-201.
6参见：R.Scott Appleby.The Ambivalence of The Sacred：Religion Violence andReconciliation[M]. Oxford:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC.2000:89-91.
7张家栋.当代恐怖主义的宗教根源[J].国际观察,2006(2)：44；46.
8 Mai Yamani, Interviewed on the TV program, "Frontline", Public Broadcasting System, WGBH, Boston, MA.2001. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saudi/interviews/yamani.html. accessed on January 8,2010.
9 Ali. al-Ahmed. Interviewed on the TV program,"Frontline," Public Broadcasting System, WGBH, Boston, MA.2001. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saudi/interviews/ahmed.html. accessed on January 8,2010.
10金宜久,吴云贵.当代宗教与极端主义[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008：导言：4.
11在国际恐怖主义发展史上,实施恐怖主义的主体,不仅可以是非国家行为体的组织和个人,而且在特定历史时期,也可是国家。而本文中所指的进行恐怖主义活动的主体,主要指的是以宗教信仰为思想指导、联系纽带和活动目标的组织及个人,不包括国家行为体。
12张家栋.恐怖主义的概念分析[J].世界经济与政治,2003(3)：39.
13[美]哈里·亨德森著,贾伟、李联荣等译.全球恐怖主义[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2003：74.
14李湛军.重新定义恐怖主义[J].现代国际关系,2003,(7)：28.
Brigitte L. Nacos. Terrorism and the Media:From the Iran Hostage Crisis to the World Trade Center Bombing. New York:Columbia University Press.1994:74-75.
16 Reuven Paz. Sawt al-Jihad:New Indoctrination of Qa'idat al-Jihad. Occasional Paper, Project for the Study of Islamist Movement, Vol.1. No.8, October,2003. http: //www.e-prism.org/images/PRISM-no-9.doc. accessed on January 28,2008.
17 Brigitte L. Nacos. Accomplice or Witness? The Media's Role in Terrorism[J]. in Current History. April,2000:175.
18 Alex P. Schmid and Janny de Graaf. Violence as Communication:Insurgent Terrorism and the Western News Media [M]. Beverly Hills:Sage Publications Ltd.1982:215.
19该定义的明确界定,由计算机科学家多萝西·邓宁(Dorothy Denning)于2000年5月在对美国会众议院三军委员会(The House Armed Services Committee)作证时提出。转移自：Gabriel Weimann. Cyberterrorism:How Real Is the Threat?[R]. Special Report. No.119. United States Institute of Peace. December.2004:4.
20详见Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States[R]. The 9/11 Commission Report:Authorized Edition. New York & London:W.W. Norton & Company.2004:157,164,495.
21莫拉·康威著,朱美荣译.恐怖主义与大众传媒[J].国外社会科学文摘,2005(1)：41.
22[美]沃纳·塞佛林,小詹姆斯·坦卡德著,贾伟、郭慎之等译.传播理路：起源、方法与应用[M].北京：华夏出版社,2000：107.转引自董璐编著.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学出版社2008： 211.
23参见Christina Meyer. Underground Voices:Insurgent Propaganda in El Salvador, Nicaragua and Peru[R]. Santa Monica:RAND,N-3299-USDP.1991:2.
24 Mark Weitzman. Using the Web as a Weapon:the Internet as a Tool for Violent Radicalization and Homegrown Terrorism. [R] Testimony before the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Homeland Security. November 6,2007:2.
25 Gabriel Weimann. The Psychology of Mass-Mediated Terrorism[J]. in American Behavioral Scientist. Vol.52, No.1,2008:74.
26 Gabriel Weimann. Al-Qa'ida's Extensive Use of the Internet[A]. in CTC Centenial[C].1:2,2008：607.此外,由于互联网上相关站点的易变性大大超过稳定性,以及国家对恐怖组织网站的密切追踪和屏敝,不同学者的统计数据可能存在一定出入,这属于正常现象。对此类站点数量的统计都是相对的约数,不可能达到完全的精确。
27 Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:70.
28 Gabriel Weimann. WWW.Terror.net:How Modern Terrorism Use the Internet [R]. Special Report. No.116. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. March,2004:6.
29 Phillip W. Brunst. Use of the Internet by Terrorists:A Threat Analysis[A]. in Centre of Excellence Defence Against Terrorism, ed. Response to Cyber Terrorism[M].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2008:47.
30 Paul Eedle. Terrorism. Com[N].London:The Guardian,17 July 2002该网站已被关闭。目前,此域名下的网页主要刊登美国政府的反恐信息。
31 Douglas Farah,Peter Finn. Terrorism, Inc.;Al Qaeda Franchises Brand of Violence to Groups Across World[N]. Washington Post, Nov.21,2003:A33.
32 Hanna Rogan. Jihadism Online:A study of how al-Oaida and radical Islamist groups use the Internet for terrorist purposes[R]. FF1/RAPPORT-2006/00915. Kjeller:Norwegian Defence Research Establishment.2006:24
33 Gabriel Weimann. WWW.Terror.net:How Modern Terrorism Use the Internet [R]. Special Report. No.1 16. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. March,2004:5.
34 Yael Yehoshua. Islamist Website as an Integral Part of Jihad:A General Overview[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:64.
35 Bruce Hoffman. The Use of the Internet by Islamic Extremists[R]. Testimony presented to the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence Santa Monica:RAND, CT-262-1. May 4, 2006:5.
36参见Jeffrey Simon. The terrorism trap:America's experience with terrorism [M]. Bloomington:Indiana University Press.1994.
37详见[美]曼纽尔·卡斯特著,曹荣湘译.认同的力量(第二版)[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2006：导言与结论部分。
38 Steve Coll and Susan B. Glasser. Terrorists Turn to the Web as Base of Operations[N]. Washington Post, August.7,2005:Al. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/05/AR2005080501138.html. accessed on October 8,2010.
39[美]伊恩·莱赛等著,程克雄译.反新恐怖主义[M].北京：新华出版社,2002：61-62.
40[美]曼纽尔·卡斯特著,曹荣湘译.认同的力量(第二版)[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2006：139-140.
441同上书：140.
42详见John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt. eds. Networks and Netwars:The Future of Terror, Crime and Militancy[C], Rand Corporation. The Advent of Netwar (revisited). Santa Monica: RAND.2001:1-25.
43 Timothy D. Bailey and Michael R. Grimaila. Running the blockade:Information technology, terrorism, and the transformation of Islamic mass culture[J]. in Terrorism and Political Violence.18,2006. quoted in David H. Gray and Albon Head. The Importance of the Internet to the Post-Modern Terrorist and its Role as a Form of Safe Haven[J]. in European Journal of Scientific Research. Vol.25, No.3,2009:398
44参见Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:24.
45 Marc Sageman. Understanding Terror Networks[M]. Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press.2004:161.
46参见Deborah Touboul. Francophone Internet Forums Shed Light on Concerns and Issues of Islamists. Occasional Paper, Project for the Study of Islamist Movement, Vol.3. No.6, September, 2005. http://www.e-prism.org/images/PRISM_no_6_vol_3_-_Islamic_sites_in_French.pdf. accessed on June 16,2009.
47 Peter Margulies. The Clear and Present Internet:Terrorism, Cyberspace, and the First Amendment. UCLA Journal of Law and Technology Vol.8, No.2,2004:2. http://www.lawtechjournal.com/articles/2004/04_041207_margulies.pdf. accessed on July 16, 2009.
48参见Michele Zanini and Sean J. A. Edwards. The Networking of Terrorism in the Information Age[C]. in John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt. eds. Networks and Netwars:The Future of Terror, Crime, Militancy. Santa Monica:RAND,2001:36.; Kevin J. Soo Hoo, Seymour E.Goodman. and Lawerence T.Greenberg. Inforamtion Technology and Terrorist Threat[J].in Survival. Vol.39. No.3,1997:135-155.
49 Michele Zanini. Middle Eastern Terrorism and Netwar[J]. in Studies in Conflict and Terrorism. Vol.22. No.3,1999:251.
50 Gabriel Weimann. WWW.Terror.net:How Modern Terrorism Use the Internet [R]. Special Report. No.116. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. March,2004:10.
51参见Lia Brynjar and Thomas Hegghammer. FFI Explains al Qaeda Document. http://www.mil.no/felles/ffi/start/article.jhtml?articleID=71589.; Pamela Rolfe.29 Indicted for Roles in Madrid Bombings[H], Washington Post, April 11.2006. A14. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/11/AR2006041101567.html. accessed on October 15,2010.
52参见American Northeast Intelligence Nelwork[R]. online report. June 2.2004. http://www.homelandsecurityus.com/. quoted in Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press, 2006:130-131.
53 Dorothy E. Denning. Terrors Web:How the Internet Is Transforming Terrorism[C].in Younne Jewkes and Majid Yar, eds. Handbook on Internet Crime[M]. London:Willan Publishing,2009.or http://www.cyberloop.org/academic-papers/terrors-web-how-the-internet-is-transforming-terroris m-dorothy-denning-2010.html. accsed on May 25,2010.
54参见CIIR. Al-Qaida Media Arm Releases the Second Issue of Its Tech Magazine[R]. Global Issues Report, Center for International Issues Research, March 19.2007. quoted from 53.
55参见Steve Coll and Susan B. Glasser. Terrorists Turn to the Web as Base of Operations[N]. Washington Post, August.7,2005:Al. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/05/AR2005080501138.html. accessed on September 25.2010.
56参见Brafman C. Kittner. The Role of Safe Havens in Islamist Terrorism[J]. in Terrorism and Political Violence,19(3),2007:307-327.
57 Gabriel Weimann. Using the Internet for Terrorist Recruitment and Mobilization[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:56-57.
58 Ibid.53-54.
59 Ibid.50.
60参见Diana Galban. Terrorists Use Internet to Recruit in U.S. http://www.outloud.com/2010/issue100/terrorists.html.
61参见Charlie Savage. Pennsylvania Woman Tied to Plot on Cartoonist. March 9,2010. New York Times http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/10/us/10pennsylvania.html?th&emc=th. accessed on May 25,2010.;美国“圣战珍妮”网上招募恐怖分子被控在外国进行谋杀等罪名.2010年3月10日,联合早报(电子版)http://www.zaobao.com/gj/gj 100311_005.shtml2010年9月23日登陆。
62参见Huda al Saleh. Saudi Arabia:Internet Most Popular Terrorist Recruitment Method-Official. February 5,2007. http://www.aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=1&id=8837. accessed on May 21,2010.
63参见Abdul Hameed Bakier. Jihadis Publish Online Recruitment Manual, in Terrorism Focus, Vol.5, No.34,2008. http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2374069 accessed on September 30,2010.
64参见Declan McCullagh. Military Worried about Web Leaks. CNet News,16 January 2003. http://news.com.com/2100-1023-981057.html. accessed on October 8,2010.
65参见本章注释18.
66参见Mark Townsend. Leak Reveals Official Story of London Bombings[N]. London Observer, Apr 9,2006. http://observer.guardian.co.uk/print/0,,329453825-102285,00.html. September 30, 2010.
67参见Dan Verton and Lucas Mearian. Online Data:a Gold Mine for Terrorists, in Computer World. August 6,2004. http://www.computerworld.com/securitytopics/security/story/0,10801,95098,00.html. September 30,2010.
68参见Bruce Hoffman. The Use of the Internet by Islamic Extremists[R]. Testimony presented to the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence Santa Monica:RAND, CT-262-1. May 4, 2006:12.
69 Michael Whine.Common Motifs on Jihadi and Far Right Websites[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Kathurina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruit ing[C]. Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:88.
70 Dorothy E. Denning. Terror's Web:How the Internet Is Transforming Terrorism[C].in Younne Jewkes and Majid Yar, eds. Handbook on Internet Crime[M].London:Willan Publishing,2009. or http://www.cyberloop.org/academic-papers/terrors-web-how-the-internet-is-transforming-terroris m-dorothy-denning-2010.html. accsed on May 25,2010.
71该手册又称“曼彻斯特手册l”(Manchester Manual)。2000年3月,英国警方在对基地组织位于曼彻斯特的老巢,实施捣毁行动时,在其重要成员阿布·阿纳斯·利比(Abu Anas al-Libi)的电脑中发现了该手册。他被控涉嫌制造了1998年美国驻东非大使馆爆炸案。
72韦曼将Al Battar",译为“先知之剑”(Sword of the Prophets)。从2004年1月起,基地组织在互联网上，以Al Battar Training Camp为刊名,创办了一份连载的在线培圳杂志。部分内容可参见：Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M].Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:128-129.
73 Michael Whine.Common Motifs on Jihadi and Far Right Websites[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:87.
74参见J. Burke. Al-Qaeda Launches Online Terrorist Manual. Observer, January 19.2004. quoted in Dorothy E. Denning. Terror's Web:How the Internet Is Transforming Terrorism[C].in Younne Jewkes and Majid Yar, eds. Handbook on Internet Crime[M]. London:Willan Publishing, 2009.or http://www.cyberloop.org/academic-papers/terrors-web-how-the-internet-is-transforming-terroris m-dorothy-denning-2010.html. accsed on May 25,2010.
75参见Steve Coll and Susan B. Glasser. Terrorists Turn to the Web as Base of Operations[N], The Washington Post. August 7,2005:Al. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/05/AR2005080501138.html. September 7,2010.
76参见Susan B. Glasser and Steve Coll. The Web as Weapon:Zarqawi Intertwines Acts on Ground in Iraq with Propaganda Campaign on the Internet[N], The Washington Post. August 9, 2005. Al. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/08/AR2005080801018.html. September 8,2010.
77 David Tucker. What is new about the new terrorism and how dangerous is it?[J]. Terrorism and Political Violence,13(3),2001:2.
78 Global Jihad Fund, http://web.archive.org/web/20011109223219/www.ummah.net/jihad/ accessed on August 22,2010.
79 Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:138.
80参见Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:138-140.
81 Thomas Harding Defence Correspondent. Terrorists launder cash through online gambling. The Telegraph. January 1.2009. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technoIogy/4060727/Terrorists-launder-cash-through-on-line-gamblin g.html. accessed on September 30,2010.
82 Timothy L. Thomas. Al Qaeda and the Internet:The Danger of "Cyberplanning"[J]. in Parameters, Spring 2003:117.
83参见Brain Krebs. Terrorism's Hook Into Your Inbox[N], The Washington Post. July 5.2007. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/05/AR2007070501153.html. accessed on September 30,2010.
84 Loretta Napoleoni. Money and Terrorism[J].Strategic Insights.3,2004:1.
85参见Jamestown Foundation. Hacking Manual by Jailed Jihadi Appears on Web. Terrorism Focus 5, March 4.2008:9.
86中华人民共和国国务院新闻办.“东突”恐怖势力罪责难逃.2002年1月21日.人民网http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/3586/20020121/652705.html.2010年7月8日登陆。详细史料可参见：李琪.“东突”分裂主义势力的思想体系和基本特征[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2004.
87数据来源：中华人民共和国国务院新闻办.“东突”恐怖势力罪责难逃.2002年1月21日.人民网http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/3586/20020121/652705.html2010年7月8日登陆。“东突”恐怖势力大揭秘 非法组织达50余个.2002年2月1日.中国新闻网.http://www.chinanews.com/2002-02-01/26/159431.html2010年7月8日登陆。
88“世界维吾尔青年代表大会”,已于2004年全面并入“世界维吾尔人代表大会”(“世维会”)。“东突厥斯坦新闻信息中心”,也已成为“世维会”的附属机构。此外,“东突斯坦解放组织”的两名主要头目,也已经加入了“世维会”。
89“大毛拉”是中国新疆维吾尔等突厥语族穆斯林,将清真寺的阿訇、教长称作“毛拉”(Mawla),其中德高望重者称“大毛拉”。参见百度百科： http://baike.baidu.com/view/2633949.htm20]0年7月9 日登陆。
90参见：马大正.国家利益高于一切：新疆稳定问题的观察与思考[M].乌鲁木齐：新疆人民出版社,2002：34-45.
91潘志平.“东突”恐怖主义透视[J].新疆社会科学,2002(1)：61.
92同上：61.
93详细资料及对这一时期“东突”恐怖活动的统计,可参见：中华人民共和国国务院新闻办.“东突”恐怖势力罪责难逃.2002年1月21日.人民网.http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/3586/20020121/652705.html2010年7月8日登陆。陈良飞.“尔突”渐变[J].中国新闻周干刊,2009(21)：41-44.
94潘光,赵国军.“9·11”以来“东突”势力的新变化及其动因[J].现代国际关系,2008(10)：47-48.
95其他案件及详细过程可参见：陈育涛,张昆.“东突”恐怖势力活动的新动向及防范对策[J].新疆警官高等专科学校学报,2010,30(1)：3-8.
96 The International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research. China Under Threat: Ethnic Tensions and Terrorism [J]. in Counter Terrorism Trends Analysis. Vol.2, No.8, August 2008:2-3.
97潘光,赵国军.析“世维会”的国际化图谍[J].现代国际关系,2009(9)：22.
98 Dru C. Gladney. Cyber-Separatism, Islam, and the State in China[A]. in J. Craig Jenkins and Esther E. Gottlieb eds. Identity Conflicts[M].New Brunswick:Transaction Publishers,2007:105.
99“东突”组织发布录像威胁袭击全球中国目标.环球时报,2009年8月3日。http://www.chinaxinjiang.cn/news/xjxw/shjj/t20090803_479769.htm2010年7月8日登陆。
100李洁.全球认定的恐怖“东突”[J].瞭望,2009(28).
101 The International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research. China Under Threat: Ethnic Tensions and Terrorism [J]. in Counter Terrorism Trends Analysis. Vol.2, No.8, August 2008:3.
102“自由亚洲电台”1994年由美国国会建立,与1996年止是并入国会,并由美国官方提供运作资金。目前,“自由亚洲电台”已经开通了包括汉语、广东话、闽南方言、藏语、维吾尔语,以及朝鲜语、缅甸语、越南语等多语种在内的广播节目。虽然其“宗旨”是为亚洲国家民众,提供所谓“全面、公正的信息和报道”,但由于其浓厚的西方意思形态色彩,并且经常充当美国政府的喉舌。所以,其报道时常对亚洲国家进行无端指责,甚至直接为美国政府干涉他国内政进行宣传和辩解。
103 Dru C. Gladney. Cyber-Separatism, Islam, and the State in China[A]. in J. Craig Jenkins and Esther E. Gottlieb eds. Identity Conflicts[M].New Brunswick:Transaction Publishers,2007:109.
104潘光,赵国军.析“世维会”的国际化图谋[J].现代国际关系,2009(9)：24.
105 Louis Kriesberg. Constructive Conflicts:From Escalation to Resolution[M]. New York: Roman and Littlefield,1998:62.
106参见Kilic Kanat. Ethnic Media and Politics:The Case of the Use of the Internet by Uyghur Diaspora[J]. in First Monday, Vol.10, No.7, July 4,2005. http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/viewArticle/1259/1179.
107 Kristian Petersen. Usurping the Nation:Cyber-Leadership in the Uighur Nationalist Movement[J]. in Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol.26, No.1, April,2006:67-68.
108 Kristian Petersen. Usurping the Nation:Cyber-Leadership in the Uighur Nationalist Movement[J]. in Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol.26, No.1, April,2006:68-69.
109陈蓝.1990—-2007：中国反击“东突”十七年[N].南方周末,2007年1月11日.
110潘光,赵国军.忻“世维会”的国际化图谋[J].现代国际关系,2009(9)：21.
111同上书：24.
112参见Kristian Petersen. Usurping the Nation:Cyber-Leadership in the Uighur Nationalist Movement[J]. in Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol.26, No.1, April,2006:69.
113陈育涛,张昆.“东突”恐怖势力活动的新动向及防范对策[J].新疆警官高等专科学校学报,2010,30(1)：5.
114参见：鸟鲁木齐“7·5”事件台前幕后[N].人民日报(海外版),2009年10月16日.人民网.
1 R. Scott Appleby. Religion as an Agent of Conflict Transformation and Peacebuilding.1996. quoted from Amina Rasul. The Role of Religion in Peace Making. Presented at the CSID 10th Annual Conference. May 5th.2009. unpublished paper.
2 Brian D. Lepard. World Religions and World Peace:Toward a New Partnership[A]. in Arvind Sharma. ed. The World's Religions after September 11(Vol.1.) [M].Westpoint: Praeger Perspectives,2008:162.
3 David Rosen. Religion, identity and the challenge of peacemaking in the Holy Land[J]. in European View.2007(6):142.
4参见Marc Gopin. Between Eden and Armageddon:The Future of World Religions, Violence, and Peacemaking[M]. New York:Oxford University Press,2000:10.
5参见：戴康生,彭耀主编.宗教社会学[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2007：130-131.
6[意]F·佩多蒂,[英]P·哈兹波罗编,张新樟等译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：182.
7参见：徐以骅等编.宗教与美国社会(第五辑)[M].北京：时事出版社,2008：42-72.此外,关于CRS的详细援助活动,还可参见该书176-219页。
8[美]詹姆斯·多尔蒂,小罗伯特·普法尔茨格拉夫著,阎学通,陈寒溪等译.争论中的国际关系理论(第五版)[M].北京：世界知识出版社.2003：200.
9 David R. Smock, ed. Religious Contributions to Peacemaking:When Religion Brings Peace, Not War[R]. Peaceworks No.55. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. January, 2006:2.
10参见David R. Smock. Religion in World affairs:its Role in Conflict and peace[R]. Special Report. No.201. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. March,2008:5.
11“多轨外交”指的是国际社会和体系中的政府外交,与以个人、国家、社会层面的联系为纽带的非正式、非政府行为体合作,而发挥作用的一种外交模式。其主体包括政府、世俗和非世俗非政府组织、商业集团、个人、媒体、学术研究机构等广泛的非国家行为体。详细可参见Scott M. Thomas. The Global Resurgence of Religion and the Transformation of International Relations[M]:New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2004:176-179.
12 Douglas Johnston. Faith-Based Diplomacy:Trumping Realpolitik[M]. New York:Oxford University Press,2003:15.
13 Ibid.,18-19.
14参见David Rosen. Religion, identity and the challenge of peacemaking in the Holy Land[J]. in European View.2007(6):137-142.
15大卫·罗森拉比在担任AJC主要领导人的同时,还兼任IJCIC (International Jewish Committee for Interreligious Consultations)的首席拉比和主席。
16 David R. Smock. Religion in World affairs:its Role in Conflict and peace[R]. Special Report. No.201. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. March,2008:4.
17参见：徐以骅等.宗教与美国社会(第九辑)[M].北京：时事出版社,2008：182.
18参见David R. Smock. Faith-Based NGOs and International Peacebuilding[R]. Special Report. No.76. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. October,2001:8.
19[美]斯蒂芬·李特约翰,凯伦·福斯著,史安斌译.人类传播理论(第九版)[M].北京.清华大学出版社,2009：95.
20[美]亚历山大·温特著,秦亚青译.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：世纪出版集团,2000：421.
21[美]亚历山大·温特著,秦亚青译.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：世纪出版集团,2000：267-268.
22同上书,328.
23[英]帕特里克·贝尔特著,瞿铁鹏译.二十世纪的社会理论[M].上海：上海译文出版社,2002：83.
24[美]斯蒂芬·李特约翰,凯伦·福斯著,史安斌泽.人类传播理论(第九版)[M].北京.清华大学出版社,2009：]33.
25参见上书：186-189.
26同上书：307-308.
27[美]詹宁斯·布莱恩特、苏珊·汤普森著,陆剑南等译.传媒效果概论[M].北京：中国传媒大学出版社,2006：119.
28参见[美]斯蒂芬·李特约翰,凯伦·福斯著,史安斌译.人类传播理论(第九版)[M].北京.清华大学出版社,2009：340-341.
29[美]希伦·A·洛厄里、梅尔文·L·德福勒著,刘海龙等译.大众传播效果研究的里程碑(第三版)[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2004：252.
30参见董璐.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2008：53.
31邵培仁等.媒介舆论学[M].北京：中国传媒大学出版社,2009：3-4.
32媒体虽然同样拥有自己的判断和发言权,但与政治或安全相关的议题上,政府等政治权力部门依然是主要的话语来源。并且,从总体来看,媒体与政府保持默契甚至一致,也是世界范围内较为普遍的现象。而诸如“水门事件”那样在很大程度上由媒体直接引发的政治地震,并不是在根本上否定既有的政治体制,而是媒体发挥内部纠偏功能的体现。
33关于舆论传播的特点的论述,可参见：邵培仁等著.媒介舆论学[M].北京：中国传媒大学出版社,2009：5-6.
34关于虚拟空问中“议程设置”问题的相关论述,可参见：彭兰.网络传播学[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009：391-400：匡文波.网络传播学概论(第3版)[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2009：17-21：段鹏著.传播效果研究——起源、发展与应用[M].北京：中国 传媒大学出版社,2008：136-141等著作.
35复旦大学美国研究中心的徐以骅教授指出,宗教与互联网技术的结合的积极效应包括：第一,互联网促进了世界各国政府间的宗教合作,推动了宗教非政府组组织运动的发展；第二,有利于不同宗教团体的利益和要求进入国家决策过程,并加强国家团结;第三,国家和教徒能够就宗教问题进行更有效的沟通；第四,跨国宗教非政府组织对宗教问题的监控,有利于促进国家不断改善自身宗教状况,促进真正的宗教自由。此观点出自：2010年9月21日,徐以骅教授在统战理论上海研究基地“网络与宗教传播”会议上的发言。
36[意]F·佩多蒂,[英]P·哈兹波罗编,张新樟等译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：150.
37参见：http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/504/88.PDF/N0550448.pdf?OpenElement. accessed on December 10,2010.
38 Maura Conway. Terrorism & New Media:The Cyber Battle Space. P20-21. http://doras.dcu.ie/500/1/terrorism_new_media_2007.pdf. accessed on September 10,2010.
39 Yael Shahar. The Internet as a Tool for Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism[A]. in Centre of Excellence Defence Against Terrorism, ed. Response to Cyber Terrorism[M].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2008:117.
40参见Jarret M. Brachman and William F. Mccants. Stealing al-Qa'ida's Playbook[R]. CTC Report, Feburary 2006; Yael Shahar. The Internet as a Tool for Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism[A]. in Centre of Excellence Defence Against Terrorism, ed. Response to CyberTerrorism[M].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2008:108-112.
41参见Hsinchun Chen. Computer-Assisted "Dark Web" Website and Forum Collection, Analysis and Visualization[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:121-131.
42 Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:174.
43 Brian Krebs. Feds Building Internet Monitoring Center. The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A3409-2003Jan30?language=printer.
44参见Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:181-189.
45 Yael Shahar. The Internet as a Tool for Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism[A]. in Centre of Excellence Defence Against Terrorism, ed. Response to Cyber Terrorism[M].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2008:109-110.
46 Peter S. Probst. Terrorism:Perception, Illusion and the Art of Political Warfare[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:11.
47“乌力玛”是对穆斯林的学者,或伊斯兰教宗教、法律权威的称呼。
48 Yael Yehoshua. Islamist Websites as an Integral Part of Jihad:A General Overview[A]. in Boaz Ganor. Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:65.
49 Dorothy E. Denning. Terror's Web:How the Internet Is Transforming Terrorism[C].in Younne Jewkes and Majid Yar, eds. Handbook on Internet Crime[M]. London:Willan Publishing,2009.or http://www.cyberloop.org/academic-papers/terrors-web-how-the-internet-is-transforming-terroris m-dorothy-denning-2010.html. accessed on May 25,2010.
50参见Tim Stevens and Peter R. Neumann. Countering Online Radicalisation:A Strategy for Action[R]. London:The International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence (ICSR),2009:15-19.
51 Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:197.
52 Maura Conway. Terrorism & New Media:The Cyber Battle Space. P26-27. http://doras.dcu.ie/500/1/terrorism_new_media_2007.pdf.
53参见Yael Shahar. The Internet as a Tool for Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism[A]. in Centre of Excellence Defence Against Terrorism, ed. Response to Cyber Terrorism[M].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2008:107.
54 Luibomyr Tokar. Hypermedia Communication as a Modern Means for the Creation of Terrorist and Counterterrorist Consciousness[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007: 113.
55 Ibid:245.
56 Michael Evans. MI5's Spymaster Jonathan Evans Comes out of the Shadows[N]. The Times,7 January 2009. quoted in Tim Stevens and Peter R. Neumann. Countering Online Radicalisation: A Strategy for Action[R]. London:The International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence (ICSR),2009:38.
57参见Gabriel Weimann. Online Terrorists Prey on the Vulnerable:Websites target marginalized women and youth, recruiting for suicide missions. Yale Global,5 March 2008. http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/online-terrorists-prey-vulnerable.
58“媒介暴力”是指媒体中涉及的暴力内容对受众,尤其是青少年起到的不良示范作用,使他们在日常生活中,更容易产生暴力行为,即接触较多暴力内容的人,比接触较少暴力内 容的人,在行为上更具攻击性。参见：[美]詹宁斯·布莱恩特、苏珊·汤普森著,陆剑南等译.传媒效果概论[M].北京：中国传媒大学出版社,2006：143-158；董璐.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学：出版社,2008：196-198.
59参见：Media Awareness Network website, http://www.media-awareness.ca.; MNet. Online Hate:An Introduction. http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/online_hate/index.cfm. accessed on December 17,2010.; Tim Stevens and Peter R. Neumann. Countering Online Radicalisation:A Strategy for Action[R]. London:The International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence (ICSR),2009:41.
60参见Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:199.
61“反诽谤联盟”是美国著名的犹太人非政府组织。其主要日标是监督、解决各种对犹太人的诽谤,以及所有宣扬种族仇恨的行为。参见其官方网站：http://www.adl.org.
62 Tim Stevens and Peter R. Neumann. Countering Online Radicalisation:A Strategy for Action[R]. London:The International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence (ICSR),2009:35.
63匡文波.网络传播学概论(第3版)[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2009：67.
64数据来源：中国互联网信息中心.第27次中国互联网络发展状况统计报告[R].2011：12.
65除此之外,《互联网上网服务营业场所管理条例》、《互联网出版管理暂行规定》、《互联网电子公告服务管理规定》、《博客服务自律公约》《计算机信息网络国际联网安全保护管理办法》《互联网文化管理暂行规定》等行政法规中,也有类似的规定。
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67参见：卓新平.中国宗教的当代走向[J].学术月刊,2008(10：5-9.
68同上书：5.
69参见：刘金光.国际互联网与宗教渗透[J].中国宗教,2003(8)：27-29.
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3可参见：金宜久,吴云贵.当代宗教与极端主义[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008：124-125.
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11该数字于2011年4月2日通过Yahoo(中国)搜索得出,虽然Yahoo搜索在中国的市场占有率远低于Baidu和Google,但雅虎是世界上第一个相对完善和成熟,并且具有强大搜索结果分类功能。而在网络空间中为了增加点击率、吸引注意力,以宗教为名,实则进行纯商业活动,或其他与宗教根本无关,只是由于于程序语言设计上的缺陷而搜索出的网站和网页,大量充斥于互联网上的情况下,给精确统计宗教网站的实际数目带来了不必要的干扰,而Yahoo的搜索结果分类功能则恰好解决了这一问题。
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23本文将在第一章第二节中详细讨论“网络宗教”与“网上宗教”的区别。
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79黄平,张可杰.网络时代的“宗教形象”与中美关系——以对“基督教关注”的研究为例[A].见：徐以骅主编.宗教与美国社会(第三辑)[M].北京：时事出版社,2005：259-280.
80刘金光.国际互联网与宗教渗透[J].中国宗教,2003(8)：28-29.
81冼德庆.当前宗教向高校渗透的方式、特点及其预防对策[J].兰州学刊,2007(2)：115.
82可参见沈卫中.抵御境外宗教渗透实现社会和谐稳定——境外势力对南通市宗教渗透的基本情况及对策[J].中共伊犁州委党校学报,2005,3.；张夏.新时期抵御境外宗教渗透的几点思考[J].宗教研究,2006,4.；韩祥纯.宗教渗透与国家政治安全[J].重庆社会主义学院学报,2007(1).等。
83吕大吉主编.宗教学纲要[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2003：24-27.
84同上书：37.
85参见：李少军.国际政治学概论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2002：147-148.
86 Roger Carey and Trevor C. Salmon. International Security in the Modern World[M]. New York:St. Martin's Press,1992:13.
87牛津高阶英汉双解词典[M].北京：商务印书馆.2006：1841.
88同上书 426.
89[英]巴里·布赞,迪·怀尔德著,朱宁泽.新安全论[M].杭州：浙江人民出版社,2003：7-12.
90可参见第一部分“选题背景”
91据2011年1月,中国互联网络信息中心(CNNIC)发布的《第27次中国红联网络发展状况统计报告》显示,截止至2010年12月,我国网民规模已达4.57亿。其中,宽带网民数为4.5亿：农村网民1.25亿,比2009年增长了16.9%;使用手机上网的网民也已达到3.03亿,占网民总数的的66.2%；互联网普及率攀升至34.3%。
92[美]斯蒂芬·范埃弗拉著,陈琪译.政治学研究方法指南(译序)[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2006：5.
1 Peter Mangold. National Security and International Relations[M]. London and New York: Routledge,1990:2.转引自：李少军.国际政治学概论[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2002：147.
2王逸舟.重视非传统安全研究[N].人民日报,2003年5月21日：第7版.
3李小华.中国安全观分析[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2008：28.
4 Susanne Hoeber Rudolph and James Piscatori. eds. Transnational Religion and Fading States[M]. New York:Westview Press,1997:6.
5[意]F·佩多蒂,[英]P.哈兹波罗编,张新樟等译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：69.
6张志刚.宗教哲学研究——当代观念、关键环节及其方法论批判[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：472.关于理性与宗教信仰的关系问题,除上书外,还可参见：张志刚.理性的；彷徨——现代西方宗教哲学理性观比教[M].北京：东方出版社.1997.
7[美]威廉·詹姆斯著,尚新建译.宗教经验种种[M].北京：华夏出版社,2008：271.
8同上书：306-307.
9在詹姆斯看来,“个人的宗教”的落脚点是人本身,表现为个人对“上帝”或者某种“终极实在”产生感情、体会等以及由此产生地特定行为,是个人与神圣对象之间超越其他中介的,直接发生的关系：而“制度的宗教”重视的是神性,主要表现为崇拜、献祭、神学、仪式和教会等。
10[美]威廉·詹姆斯著,尚新建泽.宗教经验种种[M].北京：华夏出版社,2008：22.
11同上书：53-54.
12同上书：312-314.
13同上书：331.
41详见[德]鲁道夫·奥托著,成穷,周邦宪译.论“神圣”[M].成都：四川人民出版社,2003：1-5.
15这是奥托自认为与其思想导师之一的弗里德里希·施莱尔马赫(Friedrich D.E. Schleliermacher)的主要区别,奥托认为其研究的起点是“神圣者”本身,这是一种超越性的客观存在,而不是施莱尔马赫所说的对神的“绝对依赖感”。他认为,施氏的不当之处在于把对神的感觉、体会、情感等主观反应作为研究的出发点。施氏的思想主要见于《On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers》和《The Christian Faith》.
16[德]鲁道夫·奥托著,成穷,周邦宪译.论“神圣”[M].成都：四川人民出版社,2003：7.
17同上书：7.
18[美]麦克·彼得森,威廉·哈斯克等著,孙毅,游斌译.理性与宗教信念——宗教哲学导论(第三版)[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2005：59-60.
19同上书：60.
20[英]勃兰特·罗素著,沈海康.为什么我不是基督徒[M].北京：商务印书馆,1982：27.
21马克思恩格斯全集(第三卷)[M].北京：人民出版社,1996：666-667.
22 Paul Tillich.Dynamics of Faith[M].Happer & Row,Publishers,1957:77转引自张志刚.宗教哲学研究——当代观念、关键环节及其方法论批判[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：558.
23同上书：578.
24同上书：548.
25详见[瑞士]汉斯·昆著,杨德友.论基督徒(上)[M].上海：三联书店,1995：74.
26 Hans Kung.Theology for the Third Millennium:An Ecumenical View[M].William Collins Sons & Co., Ltd. and Doubleday,1988:202-203转引自张志刚自张志刚.宗教哲学研究——当代观念、关键环节及其办法论批判[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：525.
27瑞十]汉斯·昆著,杨德友.论基督徙(上)[M].上海：三联书店,1995：55.
28 Hans Kung. Theology for the Third Millennium:An Ecumenical View[M]. William Collins Sons & Co., Ltd. and Doubleday,1988:202-203转引自张志刚自张志刚.宗教哲学研究当代观念、关键环节及其方法论批判[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：525.
29同上书：526.
30[美]包尔丹著, 陶飞亚,刘义等译.宗教的七种理论[M].上海：上海古籍出版社,2005：41.
31陈麟书,陈霞.宗教学原理[M].北京：宗教文化出版社,1999：77.
32[美]罗德尼·斯达克,罗杰尔·芬克著,杨凤岗.信仰的法则[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2004：53.
33同上书：103.
34参见：蔡开裕,范金鹏.计算机网络[M].北京：机械工业出版社,2002：2.
35同上书：3.
36详见上书：5-6.
37[美]曼纽尔·卡斯特著,曹荣湘译.认同的力量(第二版)[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2006：158.
38参见：蔡翠红.信息网络与国际政治[M].上海：学林出版社,2003：16-17.
39可参见本文第二部分中的“对‘网上宗教’的理论探讨”
40 H. Rheingold. The Virtual Community[M]. New York:Harper Perennial,1993:134-135.
41 T. Matthew Ciolek. Online religion:the Internet and religion[A]. in H. Bidgoli. ed., The Internet encyclopedia[M]. Hoboken:John Wiley & Sons, Inc,2004:798-811.
42具体可参见海蒂·坎贝尔(Heidi Campbell)、艾瑞克·戴维斯(Eric Davis)、马查·奈特迈尔(M. Macha Nightmare)等学者的相关著作。H. Campbell, A review of religious computer-mediated communication research[A]. in J. Mitchell & S. Marriage Eds. Mediating religion:Conversations in media, culture and religion[M]. Edinburgh:T & T Clark/Continuum. 2003:213-228.; E. Davis. Techno-pagans:May the astral plane be reborn in cyberspace. www.wired.com/wired/archive/3.07/technopagans.html; M.Macha Nightmare. Witchcraft and the web:Weaving pagan traditions online[M]. Ontario:ECW Press.2001.
43 Joshua C.R. Chama. Finding God on the web[J], in TIME,1996,149(1):52-59.
44 Elena Larsen. Internet resources are aids for the deeply devout[R]. December 23,2001. Pew Internet and American Life Project. http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/36/press_release.asp. accessed on October 5,2008.
45 Cyber-Faith:How Americans Pursue Religion Online. Dec.2001. http://www.pewlnternet.org/; Faith Online:64% of wired Americans have used the Internet for spiritual or religious purposes Jul.2004 http://www.pewInternet.org/. accessed on October 5,2008
46参见：中国互联网络信息中心(CNNIC)第27次中国互联网络发展状况统计报[R].2011：12.
47刘金光.国际互联网与宗教渗透[J].中国宗教,2003(8)：27.
48作者使用Yahoo (中国)搜索于2011年3月搜的：基督教,3,114,462个；天主教,1,552,889个。
49参见：中国互联网络信息中心(CNNIC)第27次中国互联网络发展状况统计报[R].2011：24-25.
50需要指出的是,这些网站和网页绝大多数是中国境内,以及港澳台等汉语文化圈中的宗教组织、与宗教有关的部门和个人建立的,还有一部分是海外宗教团体创建的,用来对华宣传主的中文网站。除此之外,还包括有些为吸引网民注意,而冠之以某种宗教名称的商业性网站和网页,但这只占其总数的极小一部分,绝大多仍然包含在本文界定宗教的虚拟化传播时,所列举的那十余类之中。所以,这些商业性的网站可以忽略不计。需要指出的是,这三组数字是通过网民常用的搜索引擎检索得出的,分别是,百度、谷歌(中国)和雅虎(中国)。之所以选择这三个,主要是根据中国互联网络信息中心发布的《2007年中国搜索引擎市场调查报告》一文的统计结果。即,全国搜索用户的首选搜索工具是百度,占74.5%；其次是谷歌,占14.3%；雅虎占2.1%,列第四位,比第三位的搜狐搜狗少0.7%。之所以选择雅虎,是因为雅虎是世界上第一个相对完善、成熟,并有强大分类功能的搜索引擎。而选择中文搜索工具,是由于中文宗教网站和网页,主要面向以中文为母语的群体为受众。
51该数字由本文于2009年8月,利用QQ群组搜索功能得出。
52参见：http://andehan.home.sunbo.net/show_hdr.php?xname=CRTPV01&dname=5FQ2011&xpos.2009年1月20日登陆。
53所谓“群体极化”现象是指,“团体成员—开始即有某些偏向,在商议后,人们朝偏向的方向继续移动,最后形成极端的观点。”本文将在第二章第二节中,对其进行详细论述。此外,关于互联网如何诱发“群体极化”,以及‘群体极化”给社会带来的后果。可参见[美]凯斯·桑斯坦著,黄维明译.网络共和国——网络社会中的民主问题[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003.
54金宜久,吴云贵.当代宗教与极端主义[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008：导言4.
55参见上书：164.
56同上书：174.
57[美]伊恩·莱赛等著,程克雄译.反新恐怖主义[M].北京：新华出版社,2002：93-94.
58同上书：61-62.
59 The International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research. China Under Threat: Ethnic Tensions and Terrorism [J]. in Counter Terrorism Trends Analysis. Vol.2, No.8, August 2008:2-3.
60 Forward by Joseph S. Nye. Jr. from Ryan Henry and C.E. Peartree, eds. The Information Revolution and International Security[M]. Washington D.C:The CSIS Press,1998.
1相关论述可参见[美]威廉·巴雷特著,段德智译.非理性的人——存在主义哲学研究[M].上海：上海译文出版社,2007.
2对于宗教经验的界定,以及宗教经验和宗教信念究竟谁更根本,至今仍是学者们争论最多的话题之一。但尽管争论如此激烈,对宗教经验的解释,主要可归为四类：首先,认为宗教经验主要是一种情感,代表人物为施莱尔马赫,奥托以及詹姆斯等：其次,认为宗教经验是人潜意识的反应,并以其为原型,主要代表人物是弗洛伊德和卡尔·荣格(Carl Gustav Jung);再次,认为宗教经验主要是一种感知或感觉,代表人物为威廉·阿斯顿(William Alston);最后,认为宗教经验是以宗教信念为根据,而对宗教本身所做的解释,代表人物为韦恩·普劳夫特(Wayne Proudfoot)
3[英]大卫·休谟著,徐晓宏译.宗教的自然史[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：13-14.详细论述可参见该书第二、三章。
4[美]麦克·彼得森,威廉·哈斯克等著,孙毅,游斌译.理性与宗教信念——宗教哲学导论(第三版)[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2005：40.
5详细论证过程可参见F. N. Watts. Psychological and Religious Perspectives on Emotion[J]. in International Journal for the Psychology of Religion.1996(6):71-78.
6 Robert N. Bellah. Beyond Belief. New York:Harper & Row.1970, P20.
7[英]麦克·阿盖尔著陈彪译《宗教心理学导论》中国人民大学出版社2005年,P83.
8详细数据可参见D. Hutsebaut and D. Verhoeven. Studying Dimensions of God Representation: Choosing Closed or Open Ended Research Questions. in International Journal for the Psychology of Religion.9.1995, P49-60.
9[英]麦克·阿盖尔著,陈彪译.宗教心理学导论[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2005：100.
10关于“信仰之悖论”的详细解释,可参见[丹]克尔凯郭尔著,刘继译.恐惧与颤栗[M].贵阳：贵州人民出版社,1994.
11本文所述的传播“五要素”,是指1948年由美国政治学家哈罗德·拉斯韦尔(Harold Lasswell)所提出的,用来描述一个传播行为的五个基本组成部分,即：传播者、信息、媒介、接收者和效果。
12[英]丹尼斯·麦奎尔著,崔保国,李琨译.麦奎尔大众传播理论[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2006：36.
13详细可参见Gerard T. Schoening and James A. Anderson. Social Action Media Studies: Foundational Arguments and Common Premises[J]. in Communication Theory.1995(5):93-116.
14[英]丹尼斯·麦令尔.刘燕南,李颖等.受众分析[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006：37-4].
15详细可参见Frank A. Biocca. Opposing Conceptions of the Audience[J]. in J. Anderson ed., Communication Yearbook 11. Newbury Park:Sage Publications,1988:51-80.
16有关传播关系的四种模式：训示型、咨询型、对话型和注册型的详细论述,可参见J.L. Bordewijk and B. van Kaam. Towards A New Classification of Tele-information Services[J]. in Intermedia.14(1),1986:16-21.
17参见董璐.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2008：182-183.
18[美]理查德·韦斯特,林恩·H·特纳著,刘海龙.传播理论导引：分析与应用[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2007：137-139.
19参见[英]丹尼斯·麦奎尔著,刘燕南、李颖等译.受众分析[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006：95-98.
20[德]托马斯·卢克曼著,覃方明译.无形的宗教——现代社会中的宗教问题[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：6-7.
21戴康生、彭耀主编.宗教社会学[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2007：39.
22唐名辉.网络宗教生活对基督教徒的宗教性的影响——以长沙市在线基督徒的宗教生活为实证研究基础[J].宗教学研究,2008,2：114-115.
23本笃十六.司铎和数码世界中的牧民服务：新媒体为圣言服务.梵蒂冈教廷官方网站：http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/messages/communications/documents/hf_ben-xv i_mes_20100124_44th-world-communications-day_en.html. accessed on March 5,2010.
24[德]格奥尔格·西美尔著,曹卫东译.宗教社会学[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：5.
25 Sonia Livingstone. Critical debates in internet studies:reflections on an emerging field. London:LSE Research Online:http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/1011. Available in LSE Research Online: July 2007. accessed on October 20,2009.
26 Elena Larsen. Wired Churches, Wired Temples:Taking Congregations and Missions into Cyberspace. Washington, DC:Pew Internet and American Life Project: http://www.pewinternet.org/reports/toc.asp?Report=28. accessed on October 5,2008.
27对此,心理学家米尔顿·罗基奇(Milton Rokeach)故过相关论述,他发现,在朋友选择方面,共同的信仰比共同的种更重要。可参见Milton Rokeach. The Open and Closed Mind [M]. New York:Basic Books,1960.
28戴康生,彭耀.宗教社会学[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2007：84.
29 Rodney Stark and Roger Finke. Acts of Faith:Explaining the Human Side of Religion [M]. Los Angelse:University of California Press,2000:113.
30 Heidi Campbell. A Review of Religious Computer-Mediated Communication Research, in J. Mitchell & S. Marriage, eds. Mediating religion:Conversations in media, culture and religion[M]. Edinburgh:T & T Clark/Continuum,2003:213-228.
31 Heidi Campbell. Religion and the Internet [J]. in Communication Research Trends. Vol.25, No.1,2006:14.
32参见Elena Larsen, etc. CyberFaith:How Americans Pursue Religion Online. Washington, DC Pew Internet & American Life Project:http://www.pewlnternet.org/reports/, released on December 23 2001:3.and Stewart M. Hoover, Lynn S. Clark, and Lee Rainie. Faith online:64% of wired Americans have used the Internet for spiritual or religious information. Washington, DC: Pew Internet and American Life Project:http://www.pewlnternet.org/reports/. accessed on October 5,2008.
33参见Rob Nyland and Chris Near. Jesus is My Friend:Religiosity as a Mediating Factor in Internet Social Networking Use [A]. Paper Presented at the AEJMC Midwinter Conference, in Reno, Nevada, Feb 23-24,2007:2.
34事实上,一般意义上的“群体极化”现象,有两种表现形式：其一,经过讨论后,某群体做出的决定比其成员个人在参与群体讨论前,所做出的决定要冒险。这种情况可称为“风险转移”(risky shift),或者“冒险性群体极化”；其二,就某些特定决定而言,群体也可能做出比个人更加谨慎的决定。这可称为“谨慎转移”(cautious shift),或者“谨慎性群体极化”。它们都是一般意义上的“群体诱发态度极化”(group-induced attitude polarization)现象的两种特例。详见可见：Daniel J. Isenberg. Group polarization:a critical review and meta-analysis [J]. in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol.50, No.6,1986:1141。本文认为,在现实中,人们谈到“群体极化”现象时,更多地关注和担心的是“冒险性群体极化”,而对“谨慎性群体极化”的关注则相对较少,这主要是因为具有“冒险性群体极化”倾向的群体给社会带来的负面影响,要远比具有“谨慎性群体极化”倾向的群体更现实,更有危害性。而判断某群体具有哪种“群体极化”倾向的主要依据之 ,就是该群体或组织内早已预先设定或占优势的意见气候和舆论氛围。例如,宗教极端组织,为表达某种不满或回应外界压力而进行商议,经过讨论后,做出恐怖袭击决定的可能性,要远大于自由派或温和派的宗教组织。所以,在本文中,除特殊注明外,单独的“群体极化”一词,都是指“冒险性群体极化”。
35参见James A. F. Stoner. A comparison of individual and group decisions under risk, (Unpublished Master's Thesis) [D]. Cambridge:Massachusetts Institute of Technology, School of Management,1961.
36参见注释95。
37参见Allen I. Teger and Dean G. Pruitt. Components of group risk taking[J]. in Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol.3,1967:189-205.
38参见Serge Moscovici and Marisa Zavalloni. The group as a polarizer of attitudes[J]. in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol.12,1969:125-135.
39 David.G. Myers and George D.Bishop. The Enhancement of Dominant Attitudes in Group Discussion [J].in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol.20,1976:286.
40引自[美]戴维·迈尔斯著,侯玉波,乐国安等译.社会心理学[M].北京：人民邮电出版社,2006：223.
41具体数据及分析过程详见乐媛,杨伯溆.网络极化现象研究——基于四个中文BBS论坛的内容分析[J].青年研究,2010.2：1-12.
42详见[美]埃里克·H·埃里克森著,孙名之译.同一性：青少年与危机[M].杭州：浙江教育出版社,2005：9.
43“沉默的螺旋”现象,是传播学中关于传播效果研究的一个关键理论。本章的下一节将对其进行详细解释。
44乐国安编著.社会心理学[M].广州：广东高等教育出版社,2006：419.
45关于对一般意义上的“群体极化”现象的解释和证明,以及延伸阅读资料,可参见Daniel J.Isenberg. Group polarization:a critical review and meta-analysis [J]. in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol.50, No.6,1986:1141-1151.
46详见注释106。
47参见Cass R. Sunstein. The Law of Group polarization [J]. in The Journal of Political Psychology, vol.10, No.2,2002:177.
48[美]戴维·迈尔斯著,侯玉波,乐国安等译.社会心理学[M].北京：人民邮电出版社,2006：224.
49参见Roger Brown. Social psychology, (Second Edition) [M]. New York:Free Press,1985. quoted in Cass R. Sunstein. Neither Hayek nor Habermas [J]. in Public Choice.134,2002:93.
50详见本章第一节。
51 Brooke Harrington. The Pervasive Effect of Embeddedness in Organizations [A], unpublished manuscript,2000:24.
52 Jan Fernback. Internet Ritual:A Case Study of the Construction of Computer-Mediated Neopagan Religious Meaning [A], in Stewart M. Hoover and Lynn S. Clark, eds. Practicing Religion in the Age of the Media[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,2002:267.
53参见Sara Horsfall. "How Religious Organizations Use the Internet:A Preliminary Inquiry [A]. in Jeffrey K. Hadden and Douglas E. Cowan, eds. Religion on the Internet:Research Prospects and Promises[M]. New York:JAI,2000:153-182.
54彭兰.网络传播学[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009：96.
55同上书：85.
56参见Patricia Wallace. T psychology of the Internet [M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1999:73-84.
57 Cass R. Sunstein. Neither Hayek nor Habermas [J]. in Public Choice.134,2002:93.
58[美]戴维·迈尔斯著,侯玉波,乐国安等译.社会心理学[M].北京：人民邮电出版社,2006：224.
59有关自杀式恐怖袭击的之原因的分析,可参见：Mohammed M. Hafez. Manufacturing Human Bombs:The Making of Palestinian Suicide Bombers[M]. Washington, D.C.:United States Institute of Peace.2006.; Jeff Victoroff and Arie W. Kruglanski. eds. Psychology of Terrorism: Classic and Contemporary Insights[M].Hove:Psychology Press.2009:87-194.等。
60互联网传播的效果可以从传播效应和作用效果两个层次去衡量。首先,传播效应,主要包括放大效应、聚变效应、催化效应、裂变效应,以及削弱效应等。本文主要涉及前三种,放大效应是指网络传播可以将一件小事或小话题的影响不断放大,直至最后在整个虚拟空间中,甚至是整个现实社会中产生影响。放大效应要求被传播对象本身要足够引起多数受众的关注,并主要通过信息被每个接收者增殖性地频繁转载、扩散,同时伴随着频繁的意见传播来实现。聚变效应指互联网传播可以将一些弱小的话题或声音聚集起来,汇聚成-股强大的意见流,在此过程中,单独弱小声音的能量将发生本质性的增大,进而促使整体意见变得更加强大。催化效应则指一个事件或话题,在互联网的增殖、扩散性传播的催化和推动下,性质发生了根本性变化,如,苏丹达尔富尔地区的冲突,本来仅限于苏丹国内,但通过互联网传播渠道的扩散与渲染后,世界各国在一定程度上都了解到了当地冲突的惨烈,加之整体国际政治博弈因素的参与,使该问题迅速由国内问题演变成国际问题。其次,作用效果,即信息到达受众后所引起的反应,主要包括引起其注意的程度,激发其接收的程度和影响其态度、行为的程度等。而本文认为决定—系列反应程度的主要因素是受众对该信息源及其所发出的信息的了解,接受以及认同情况。所以当教徒通过互联网接收到宗教组织或领袖发出的信息时,由于其对宗教信仰本身及其附属物的情感和认同,教徒对宗教信息的注意、接收,以及信息影响教徒态度、行为的程度都要大于其接收到—般信息时的反应程度。详细可参见：彭兰.网络传播学[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009：381-385.
61有关传播效果研究的历史演变进程可参见[美]詹宁斯·布莱恩特、苏珊·汤普森著,陆剑南等译.传媒效果概论[M].北京：中国传媒大学出版社,2006：30-53.以及董璐.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2008：261-263.
62[美]希伦·A-各厄里、梅尔文·L·德福勒著,刘海龙等译.大众传播效果研究的里程碑(第三版)[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2004：13.
63董璐.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2008：230.
64参见Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. Return to the Concept of Powerful Mass Media [J]. in Studies of Broadcasting, vol.9,1973:66-112.
65[英]丹尼斯·麦奎尔著,崔保国、李琨译.麦奎尔大众传播理论[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2006：357.
66群体分为初级群体、次级群体和社会组织。社会组织是群体的最高级形式,是指人们为了实现某种共同目标,进行彼此协调与合作的社会团体。其具体释义和区别可参见：郑杭生.社会学概论新修(第三版)[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：146-165：191-216.在本文中,在线宗教组织,是各种在线宗教群体中的主要形式。
67参见Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. The Spiral of Silence:A Theory of Public Opinion [J]. in Journal of Communication, vol.24,1974:24-51.
68 Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. The Spiral of Silence:Public Opinion-our Social Skin (2nd ed.) [M].Chicago:University of Chicago Press.1993:272转引自[美]理查德·韦斯特、林恩·H·特纳著,刘海龙译.传播理论导引：分析与应用[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2007：457.
69董璐.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2008：245.
70参见[美]Elliot Aronson、 Timothy D. Wilson、Robin M. Akert著,侯玉波等译.社会心理学(第五版,中文第二版)[M].北京：中国轻工业出版社,2007：209-210.
71详见[美]理查德·韦斯特、林恩·H·特纳著,刘海龙译.传播理论导引：分析与应用[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2007：457-461.
72彭兰.网络传播学[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009：403.
73戴康生,彭耀.宗教社会学[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2007：91.
74参见陈麟书、陈霞.宗教学原理(新版)[M].北京：宗教文化出版社,1999：86-87.
75郑杭生.社会学概论新修(第三版)[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2003：150.
76乐国安.社会心理学[M].广州：广东高等教育出版社,2006：461.
77[美]Elliot Aronson、 Timothy D. Wilson、Robin M. Akert著,侯玉波等译.社会心理学(第五版,中文第二版)[M].北京：中国轻工业出版社,2007： 214.
78详见上书：223.
79详见[法]古斯塔夫·勒庞著,冯克利译.鸟合之众——大众心理研究[M].北京：中央编泽出版社,2005：53.
80同上书：52.
81同上书：132.
82[美]Elliot Aronson、 Timothy D. Wilson、Robin M. Akert著,侯玉波等译.社会心理学(第五版,中文第二版)[M].北京：中国轻工业出版社,2007：208.
83同上术：215.
84关于“去个体化”和“群体思维”及案例的详细论述,可参见上书：248-256.
1 Aaron Weisburd. The Shifting Sands of the Global Jihad Online[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[M]. Amsterdam: IOS Press,2007:165.
2参见：张家栋.现代恐怖主义的四次浪潮[J].国际观察,2007(6)：36.
3对于该问题,目前宗教学者们的研究相对比较深入。具体可参见：金宜久,吴云贵.当代宗教与极端主义[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008.；吴云贵.伊斯兰原教旨主义、宗教极端主义及国际恐怖主义辨析[J].国外社会科学,2002(1).
4[美]曼纽尔·卡斯特著,曹荣湘译.认同的力量(第二版)[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2006：12.
5详细可参见：Jeffrey Haynes. Introduction to International Relations and Religion[M]. London: Pearson Education Limited.2007:199-201.
6参见：R.Scott Appleby.The Ambivalence of The Sacred：Religion Violence andReconciliation[M]. Oxford:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC.2000:89-91.
7张家栋.当代恐怖主义的宗教根源[J].国际观察,2006(2)：44；46.
8 Mai Yamani, Interviewed on the TV program, "Frontline", Public Broadcasting System, WGBH, Boston, MA.2001. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saudi/interviews/yamani.html. accessed on January 8,2010.
9 Ali. al-Ahmed. Interviewed on the TV program,"Frontline," Public Broadcasting System, WGBH, Boston, MA.2001. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saudi/interviews/ahmed.html. accessed on January 8,2010.
10金宜久,吴云贵.当代宗教与极端主义[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008：导言：4.
11在国际恐怖主义发展史上,实施恐怖主义的主体,不仅可以是非国家行为体的组织和个人,而且在特定历史时期,也可是国家。而本文中所指的进行恐怖主义活动的主体,主要指的是以宗教信仰为思想指导、联系纽带和活动目标的组织及个人,不包括国家行为体。
12张家栋.恐怖主义的概念分析[J].世界经济与政治,2003(3)：39.
13[美]哈里·亨德森著,贾伟、李联荣等译.全球恐怖主义[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2003：74.
14李湛军.重新定义恐怖主义[J].现代国际关系,2003,(7)：28.
Brigitte L. Nacos. Terrorism and the Media:From the Iran Hostage Crisis to the World Trade Center Bombing. New York:Columbia University Press.1994:74-75.
16 Reuven Paz. Sawt al-Jihad:New Indoctrination of Qa'idat al-Jihad. Occasional Paper, Project for the Study of Islamist Movement, Vol.1. No.8, October,2003. http: //www.e-prism.org/images/PRISM-no-9.doc. accessed on January 28,2008.
17 Brigitte L. Nacos. Accomplice or Witness? The Media's Role in Terrorism[J]. in Current History. April,2000:175.
18 Alex P. Schmid and Janny de Graaf. Violence as Communication:Insurgent Terrorism and the Western News Media [M]. Beverly Hills:Sage Publications Ltd.1982:215.
19该定义的明确界定,由计算机科学家多萝西·邓宁(Dorothy Denning)于2000年5月在对美国会众议院三军委员会(The House Armed Services Committee)作证时提出。转移自：Gabriel Weimann. Cyberterrorism:How Real Is the Threat?[R]. Special Report. No.119. United States Institute of Peace. December.2004:4.
20详见Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States[R]. The 9/11 Commission Report:Authorized Edition. New York & London:W.W. Norton & Company.2004:157,164,495.
21莫拉·康威著,朱美荣译.恐怖主义与大众传媒[J].国外社会科学文摘,2005(1)：41.
22[美]沃纳·塞佛林,小詹姆斯·坦卡德著,贾伟、郭慎之等译.传播理路：起源、方法与应用[M].北京：华夏出版社,2000：107.转引自董璐编著.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学出版社2008： 211.
23参见Christina Meyer. Underground Voices:Insurgent Propaganda in El Salvador, Nicaragua and Peru[R]. Santa Monica:RAND,N-3299-USDP.1991:2.
24 Mark Weitzman. Using the Web as a Weapon:the Internet as a Tool for Violent Radicalization and Homegrown Terrorism. [R] Testimony before the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Homeland Security. November 6,2007:2.
25 Gabriel Weimann. The Psychology of Mass-Mediated Terrorism[J]. in American Behavioral Scientist. Vol.52, No.1,2008:74.
26 Gabriel Weimann. Al-Qa'ida's Extensive Use of the Internet[A]. in CTC Centenial[C].1:2,2008：607.此外,由于互联网上相关站点的易变性大大超过稳定性,以及国家对恐怖组织网站的密切追踪和屏敝,不同学者的统计数据可能存在一定出入,这属于正常现象。对此类站点数量的统计都是相对的约数,不可能达到完全的精确。
27 Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:70.
28 Gabriel Weimann. WWW.Terror.net:How Modern Terrorism Use the Internet [R]. Special Report. No.116. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. March,2004:6.
29 Phillip W. Brunst. Use of the Internet by Terrorists:A Threat Analysis[A]. in Centre of Excellence Defence Against Terrorism, ed. Response to Cyber Terrorism[M].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2008:47.
30 Paul Eedle. Terrorism. Com[N].London:The Guardian,17 July 2002该网站已被关闭。目前,此域名下的网页主要刊登美国政府的反恐信息。
31 Douglas Farah,Peter Finn. Terrorism, Inc.;Al Qaeda Franchises Brand of Violence to Groups Across World[N]. Washington Post, Nov.21,2003:A33.
32 Hanna Rogan. Jihadism Online:A study of how al-Oaida and radical Islamist groups use the Internet for terrorist purposes[R]. FF1/RAPPORT-2006/00915. Kjeller:Norwegian Defence Research Establishment.2006:24
33 Gabriel Weimann. WWW.Terror.net:How Modern Terrorism Use the Internet [R]. Special Report. No.1 16. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. March,2004:5.
34 Yael Yehoshua. Islamist Website as an Integral Part of Jihad:A General Overview[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:64.
35 Bruce Hoffman. The Use of the Internet by Islamic Extremists[R]. Testimony presented to the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence Santa Monica:RAND, CT-262-1. May 4, 2006:5.
36参见Jeffrey Simon. The terrorism trap:America's experience with terrorism [M]. Bloomington:Indiana University Press.1994.
37详见[美]曼纽尔·卡斯特著,曹荣湘译.认同的力量(第二版)[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2006：导言与结论部分。
38 Steve Coll and Susan B. Glasser. Terrorists Turn to the Web as Base of Operations[N]. Washington Post, August.7,2005:Al. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/05/AR2005080501138.html. accessed on October 8,2010.
39[美]伊恩·莱赛等著,程克雄译.反新恐怖主义[M].北京：新华出版社,2002：61-62.
40[美]曼纽尔·卡斯特著,曹荣湘译.认同的力量(第二版)[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2006：139-140.
441同上书：140.
42详见John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt. eds. Networks and Netwars:The Future of Terror, Crime and Militancy[C], Rand Corporation. The Advent of Netwar (revisited). Santa Monica: RAND.2001:1-25.
43 Timothy D. Bailey and Michael R. Grimaila. Running the blockade:Information technology, terrorism, and the transformation of Islamic mass culture[J]. in Terrorism and Political Violence.18,2006. quoted in David H. Gray and Albon Head. The Importance of the Internet to the Post-Modern Terrorist and its Role as a Form of Safe Haven[J]. in European Journal of Scientific Research. Vol.25, No.3,2009:398
44参见Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:24.
45 Marc Sageman. Understanding Terror Networks[M]. Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press.2004:161.
46参见Deborah Touboul. Francophone Internet Forums Shed Light on Concerns and Issues of Islamists. Occasional Paper, Project for the Study of Islamist Movement, Vol.3. No.6, September, 2005. http://www.e-prism.org/images/PRISM_no_6_vol_3_-_Islamic_sites_in_French.pdf. accessed on June 16,2009.
47 Peter Margulies. The Clear and Present Internet:Terrorism, Cyberspace, and the First Amendment. UCLA Journal of Law and Technology Vol.8, No.2,2004:2. http://www.lawtechjournal.com/articles/2004/04_041207_margulies.pdf. accessed on July 16, 2009.
48参见Michele Zanini and Sean J. A. Edwards. The Networking of Terrorism in the Information Age[C]. in John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt. eds. Networks and Netwars:The Future of Terror, Crime, Militancy. Santa Monica:RAND,2001:36.; Kevin J. Soo Hoo, Seymour E.Goodman. and Lawerence T.Greenberg. Inforamtion Technology and Terrorist Threat[J].in Survival. Vol.39. No.3,1997:135-155.
49 Michele Zanini. Middle Eastern Terrorism and Netwar[J]. in Studies in Conflict and Terrorism. Vol.22. No.3,1999:251.
50 Gabriel Weimann. WWW.Terror.net:How Modern Terrorism Use the Internet [R]. Special Report. No.116. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. March,2004:10.
51参见Lia Brynjar and Thomas Hegghammer. FFI Explains al Qaeda Document. http://www.mil.no/felles/ffi/start/article.jhtml?articleID=71589.; Pamela Rolfe.29 Indicted for Roles in Madrid Bombings[H], Washington Post, April 11.2006. A14. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/11/AR2006041101567.html. accessed on October 15,2010.
52参见American Northeast Intelligence Nelwork[R]. online report. June 2.2004. http://www.homelandsecurityus.com/. quoted in Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press, 2006:130-131.
53 Dorothy E. Denning. Terrors Web:How the Internet Is Transforming Terrorism[C].in Younne Jewkes and Majid Yar, eds. Handbook on Internet Crime[M]. London:Willan Publishing,2009.or http://www.cyberloop.org/academic-papers/terrors-web-how-the-internet-is-transforming-terroris m-dorothy-denning-2010.html. accsed on May 25,2010.
54参见CIIR. Al-Qaida Media Arm Releases the Second Issue of Its Tech Magazine[R]. Global Issues Report, Center for International Issues Research, March 19.2007. quoted from 53.
55参见Steve Coll and Susan B. Glasser. Terrorists Turn to the Web as Base of Operations[N]. Washington Post, August.7,2005:Al. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/05/AR2005080501138.html. accessed on September 25.2010.
56参见Brafman C. Kittner. The Role of Safe Havens in Islamist Terrorism[J]. in Terrorism and Political Violence,19(3),2007:307-327.
57 Gabriel Weimann. Using the Internet for Terrorist Recruitment and Mobilization[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:56-57.
58 Ibid.53-54.
59 Ibid.50.
60参见Diana Galban. Terrorists Use Internet to Recruit in U.S. http://www.outloud.com/2010/issue100/terrorists.html.
61参见Charlie Savage. Pennsylvania Woman Tied to Plot on Cartoonist. March 9,2010. New York Times http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/10/us/10pennsylvania.html?th&emc=th. accessed on May 25,2010.;美国“圣战珍妮”网上招募恐怖分子被控在外国进行谋杀等罪名.2010年3月10日,联合早报(电子版)http://www.zaobao.com/gj/gj 100311_005.shtml2010年9月23日登陆。
62参见Huda al Saleh. Saudi Arabia:Internet Most Popular Terrorist Recruitment Method-Official. February 5,2007. http://www.aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=1&id=8837. accessed on May 21,2010.
63参见Abdul Hameed Bakier. Jihadis Publish Online Recruitment Manual, in Terrorism Focus, Vol.5, No.34,2008. http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2374069 accessed on September 30,2010.
64参见Declan McCullagh. Military Worried about Web Leaks. CNet News,16 January 2003. http://news.com.com/2100-1023-981057.html. accessed on October 8,2010.
65参见本章注释18.
66参见Mark Townsend. Leak Reveals Official Story of London Bombings[N]. London Observer, Apr 9,2006. http://observer.guardian.co.uk/print/0,,329453825-102285,00.html. September 30, 2010.
67参见Dan Verton and Lucas Mearian. Online Data:a Gold Mine for Terrorists, in Computer World. August 6,2004. http://www.computerworld.com/securitytopics/security/story/0,10801,95098,00.html. September 30,2010.
68参见Bruce Hoffman. The Use of the Internet by Islamic Extremists[R]. Testimony presented to the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence Santa Monica:RAND, CT-262-1. May 4, 2006:12.
69 Michael Whine.Common Motifs on Jihadi and Far Right Websites[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Kathurina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruit ing[C]. Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:88.
70 Dorothy E. Denning. Terror's Web:How the Internet Is Transforming Terrorism[C].in Younne Jewkes and Majid Yar, eds. Handbook on Internet Crime[M].London:Willan Publishing,2009. or http://www.cyberloop.org/academic-papers/terrors-web-how-the-internet-is-transforming-terroris m-dorothy-denning-2010.html. accsed on May 25,2010.
71该手册又称“曼彻斯特手册l”(Manchester Manual)。2000年3月,英国警方在对基地组织位于曼彻斯特的老巢,实施捣毁行动时,在其重要成员阿布·阿纳斯·利比(Abu Anas al-Libi)的电脑中发现了该手册。他被控涉嫌制造了1998年美国驻东非大使馆爆炸案。
72韦曼将Al Battar",译为“先知之剑”(Sword of the Prophets)。从2004年1月起,基地组织在互联网上，以Al Battar Training Camp为刊名,创办了一份连载的在线培圳杂志。部分内容可参见：Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M].Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:128-129.
73 Michael Whine.Common Motifs on Jihadi and Far Right Websites[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:87.
74参见J. Burke. Al-Qaeda Launches Online Terrorist Manual. Observer, January 19.2004. quoted in Dorothy E. Denning. Terror's Web:How the Internet Is Transforming Terrorism[C].in Younne Jewkes and Majid Yar, eds. Handbook on Internet Crime[M]. London:Willan Publishing, 2009.or http://www.cyberloop.org/academic-papers/terrors-web-how-the-internet-is-transforming-terroris m-dorothy-denning-2010.html. accsed on May 25,2010.
75参见Steve Coll and Susan B. Glasser. Terrorists Turn to the Web as Base of Operations[N], The Washington Post. August 7,2005:Al. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/05/AR2005080501138.html. September 7,2010.
76参见Susan B. Glasser and Steve Coll. The Web as Weapon:Zarqawi Intertwines Acts on Ground in Iraq with Propaganda Campaign on the Internet[N], The Washington Post. August 9, 2005. Al. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/08/AR2005080801018.html. September 8,2010.
77 David Tucker. What is new about the new terrorism and how dangerous is it?[J]. Terrorism and Political Violence,13(3),2001:2.
78 Global Jihad Fund, http://web.archive.org/web/20011109223219/www.ummah.net/jihad/ accessed on August 22,2010.
79 Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:138.
80参见Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:138-140.
81 Thomas Harding Defence Correspondent. Terrorists launder cash through online gambling. The Telegraph. January 1.2009. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technoIogy/4060727/Terrorists-launder-cash-through-on-line-gamblin g.html. accessed on September 30,2010.
82 Timothy L. Thomas. Al Qaeda and the Internet:The Danger of "Cyberplanning"[J]. in Parameters, Spring 2003:117.
83参见Brain Krebs. Terrorism's Hook Into Your Inbox[N], The Washington Post. July 5.2007. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/05/AR2007070501153.html. accessed on September 30,2010.
84 Loretta Napoleoni. Money and Terrorism[J].Strategic Insights.3,2004:1.
85参见Jamestown Foundation. Hacking Manual by Jailed Jihadi Appears on Web. Terrorism Focus 5, March 4.2008:9.
86中华人民共和国国务院新闻办.“东突”恐怖势力罪责难逃.2002年1月21日.人民网http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/3586/20020121/652705.html.2010年7月8日登陆。详细史料可参见：李琪.“东突”分裂主义势力的思想体系和基本特征[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2004.
87数据来源：中华人民共和国国务院新闻办.“东突”恐怖势力罪责难逃.2002年1月21日.人民网http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/3586/20020121/652705.html2010年7月8日登陆。“东突”恐怖势力大揭秘 非法组织达50余个.2002年2月1日.中国新闻网.http://www.chinanews.com/2002-02-01/26/159431.html2010年7月8日登陆。
88“世界维吾尔青年代表大会”,已于2004年全面并入“世界维吾尔人代表大会”(“世维会”)。“东突厥斯坦新闻信息中心”,也已成为“世维会”的附属机构。此外,“东突斯坦解放组织”的两名主要头目,也已经加入了“世维会”。
89“大毛拉”是中国新疆维吾尔等突厥语族穆斯林,将清真寺的阿訇、教长称作“毛拉”(Mawla),其中德高望重者称“大毛拉”。参见百度百科： http://baike.baidu.com/view/2633949.htm20]0年7月9 日登陆。
90参见：马大正.国家利益高于一切：新疆稳定问题的观察与思考[M].乌鲁木齐：新疆人民出版社,2002：34-45.
91潘志平.“东突”恐怖主义透视[J].新疆社会科学,2002(1)：61.
92同上：61.
93详细资料及对这一时期“东突”恐怖活动的统计,可参见：中华人民共和国国务院新闻办.“东突”恐怖势力罪责难逃.2002年1月21日.人民网.http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/3586/20020121/652705.html2010年7月8日登陆。陈良飞.“尔突”渐变[J].中国新闻周干刊,2009(21)：41-44.
94潘光,赵国军.“9·11”以来“东突”势力的新变化及其动因[J].现代国际关系,2008(10)：47-48.
95其他案件及详细过程可参见：陈育涛,张昆.“东突”恐怖势力活动的新动向及防范对策[J].新疆警官高等专科学校学报,2010,30(1)：3-8.
96 The International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research. China Under Threat: Ethnic Tensions and Terrorism [J]. in Counter Terrorism Trends Analysis. Vol.2, No.8, August 2008:2-3.
97潘光,赵国军.析“世维会”的国际化图谍[J].现代国际关系,2009(9)：22.
98 Dru C. Gladney. Cyber-Separatism, Islam, and the State in China[A]. in J. Craig Jenkins and Esther E. Gottlieb eds. Identity Conflicts[M].New Brunswick:Transaction Publishers,2007:105.
99“东突”组织发布录像威胁袭击全球中国目标.环球时报,2009年8月3日。http://www.chinaxinjiang.cn/news/xjxw/shjj/t20090803_479769.htm2010年7月8日登陆。
100李洁.全球认定的恐怖“东突”[J].瞭望,2009(28).
101 The International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research. China Under Threat: Ethnic Tensions and Terrorism [J]. in Counter Terrorism Trends Analysis. Vol.2, No.8, August 2008:3.
102“自由亚洲电台”1994年由美国国会建立,与1996年止是并入国会,并由美国官方提供运作资金。目前,“自由亚洲电台”已经开通了包括汉语、广东话、闽南方言、藏语、维吾尔语,以及朝鲜语、缅甸语、越南语等多语种在内的广播节目。虽然其“宗旨”是为亚洲国家民众,提供所谓“全面、公正的信息和报道”,但由于其浓厚的西方意思形态色彩,并且经常充当美国政府的喉舌。所以,其报道时常对亚洲国家进行无端指责,甚至直接为美国政府干涉他国内政进行宣传和辩解。
103 Dru C. Gladney. Cyber-Separatism, Islam, and the State in China[A]. in J. Craig Jenkins and Esther E. Gottlieb eds. Identity Conflicts[M].New Brunswick:Transaction Publishers,2007:109.
104潘光,赵国军.析“世维会”的国际化图谋[J].现代国际关系,2009(9)：24.
105 Louis Kriesberg. Constructive Conflicts:From Escalation to Resolution[M]. New York: Roman and Littlefield,1998:62.
106参见Kilic Kanat. Ethnic Media and Politics:The Case of the Use of the Internet by Uyghur Diaspora[J]. in First Monday, Vol.10, No.7, July 4,2005. http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/viewArticle/1259/1179.
107 Kristian Petersen. Usurping the Nation:Cyber-Leadership in the Uighur Nationalist Movement[J]. in Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol.26, No.1, April,2006:67-68.
108 Kristian Petersen. Usurping the Nation:Cyber-Leadership in the Uighur Nationalist Movement[J]. in Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol.26, No.1, April,2006:68-69.
109陈蓝.1990—-2007：中国反击“东突”十七年[N].南方周末,2007年1月11日.
110潘光,赵国军.忻“世维会”的国际化图谋[J].现代国际关系,2009(9)：21.
111同上书：24.
112参见Kristian Petersen. Usurping the Nation:Cyber-Leadership in the Uighur Nationalist Movement[J]. in Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol.26, No.1, April,2006:69.
113陈育涛,张昆.“东突”恐怖势力活动的新动向及防范对策[J].新疆警官高等专科学校学报,2010,30(1)：5.
114参见：鸟鲁木齐“7·5”事件台前幕后[N].人民日报(海外版),2009年10月16日.人民网.
1 R. Scott Appleby. Religion as an Agent of Conflict Transformation and Peacebuilding.1996. quoted from Amina Rasul. The Role of Religion in Peace Making. Presented at the CSID 10th Annual Conference. May 5th.2009. unpublished paper.
2 Brian D. Lepard. World Religions and World Peace:Toward a New Partnership[A]. in Arvind Sharma. ed. The World's Religions after September 11(Vol.1.) [M].Westpoint: Praeger Perspectives,2008:162.
3 David Rosen. Religion, identity and the challenge of peacemaking in the Holy Land[J]. in European View.2007(6):142.
4参见Marc Gopin. Between Eden and Armageddon:The Future of World Religions, Violence, and Peacemaking[M]. New York:Oxford University Press,2000:10.
5参见：戴康生,彭耀主编.宗教社会学[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2007：130-131.
6[意]F·佩多蒂,[英]P·哈兹波罗编,张新樟等译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：182.
7参见：徐以骅等编.宗教与美国社会(第五辑)[M].北京：时事出版社,2008：42-72.此外,关于CRS的详细援助活动,还可参见该书176-219页。
8[美]詹姆斯·多尔蒂,小罗伯特·普法尔茨格拉夫著,阎学通,陈寒溪等译.争论中的国际关系理论(第五版)[M].北京：世界知识出版社.2003：200.
9 David R. Smock, ed. Religious Contributions to Peacemaking:When Religion Brings Peace, Not War[R]. Peaceworks No.55. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. January, 2006:2.
10参见David R. Smock. Religion in World affairs:its Role in Conflict and peace[R]. Special Report. No.201. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. March,2008:5.
11“多轨外交”指的是国际社会和体系中的政府外交,与以个人、国家、社会层面的联系为纽带的非正式、非政府行为体合作,而发挥作用的一种外交模式。其主体包括政府、世俗和非世俗非政府组织、商业集团、个人、媒体、学术研究机构等广泛的非国家行为体。详细可参见Scott M. Thomas. The Global Resurgence of Religion and the Transformation of International Relations[M]:New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2004:176-179.
12 Douglas Johnston. Faith-Based Diplomacy:Trumping Realpolitik[M]. New York:Oxford University Press,2003:15.
13 Ibid.,18-19.
14参见David Rosen. Religion, identity and the challenge of peacemaking in the Holy Land[J]. in European View.2007(6):137-142.
15大卫·罗森拉比在担任AJC主要领导人的同时,还兼任IJCIC (International Jewish Committee for Interreligious Consultations)的首席拉比和主席。
16 David R. Smock. Religion in World affairs:its Role in Conflict and peace[R]. Special Report. No.201. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. March,2008:4.
17参见：徐以骅等.宗教与美国社会(第九辑)[M].北京：时事出版社,2008：182.
18参见David R. Smock. Faith-Based NGOs and International Peacebuilding[R]. Special Report. No.76. Washington, D. C.:United States Institute of Peace. October,2001:8.
19[美]斯蒂芬·李特约翰,凯伦·福斯著,史安斌译.人类传播理论(第九版)[M].北京.清华大学出版社,2009：95.
20[美]亚历山大·温特著,秦亚青译.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：世纪出版集团,2000：421.
21[美]亚历山大·温特著,秦亚青译.国际政治的社会理论[M].上海：世纪出版集团,2000：267-268.
22同上书,328.
23[英]帕特里克·贝尔特著,瞿铁鹏译.二十世纪的社会理论[M].上海：上海译文出版社,2002：83.
24[美]斯蒂芬·李特约翰,凯伦·福斯著,史安斌泽.人类传播理论(第九版)[M].北京.清华大学出版社,2009：]33.
25参见上书：186-189.
26同上书：307-308.
27[美]詹宁斯·布莱恩特、苏珊·汤普森著,陆剑南等译.传媒效果概论[M].北京：中国传媒大学出版社,2006：119.
28参见[美]斯蒂芬·李特约翰,凯伦·福斯著,史安斌译.人类传播理论(第九版)[M].北京.清华大学出版社,2009：340-341.
29[美]希伦·A·洛厄里、梅尔文·L·德福勒著,刘海龙等译.大众传播效果研究的里程碑(第三版)[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2004：252.
30参见董璐.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2008：53.
31邵培仁等.媒介舆论学[M].北京：中国传媒大学出版社,2009：3-4.
32媒体虽然同样拥有自己的判断和发言权,但与政治或安全相关的议题上,政府等政治权力部门依然是主要的话语来源。并且,从总体来看,媒体与政府保持默契甚至一致,也是世界范围内较为普遍的现象。而诸如“水门事件”那样在很大程度上由媒体直接引发的政治地震,并不是在根本上否定既有的政治体制,而是媒体发挥内部纠偏功能的体现。
33关于舆论传播的特点的论述,可参见：邵培仁等著.媒介舆论学[M].北京：中国传媒大学出版社,2009：5-6.
34关于虚拟空问中“议程设置”问题的相关论述,可参见：彭兰.网络传播学[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2009：391-400：匡文波.网络传播学概论(第3版)[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2009：17-21：段鹏著.传播效果研究——起源、发展与应用[M].北京：中国 传媒大学出版社,2008：136-141等著作.
35复旦大学美国研究中心的徐以骅教授指出,宗教与互联网技术的结合的积极效应包括：第一,互联网促进了世界各国政府间的宗教合作,推动了宗教非政府组组织运动的发展；第二,有利于不同宗教团体的利益和要求进入国家决策过程,并加强国家团结;第三,国家和教徒能够就宗教问题进行更有效的沟通；第四,跨国宗教非政府组织对宗教问题的监控,有利于促进国家不断改善自身宗教状况,促进真正的宗教自由。此观点出自：2010年9月21日,徐以骅教授在统战理论上海研究基地“网络与宗教传播”会议上的发言。
36[意]F·佩多蒂,[英]P·哈兹波罗编,张新樟等译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：150.
37参见：http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/504/88.PDF/N0550448.pdf?OpenElement. accessed on December 10,2010.
38 Maura Conway. Terrorism & New Media:The Cyber Battle Space. P20-21. http://doras.dcu.ie/500/1/terrorism_new_media_2007.pdf. accessed on September 10,2010.
39 Yael Shahar. The Internet as a Tool for Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism[A]. in Centre of Excellence Defence Against Terrorism, ed. Response to Cyber Terrorism[M].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2008:117.
40参见Jarret M. Brachman and William F. Mccants. Stealing al-Qa'ida's Playbook[R]. CTC Report, Feburary 2006; Yael Shahar. The Internet as a Tool for Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism[A]. in Centre of Excellence Defence Against Terrorism, ed. Response to CyberTerrorism[M].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2008:108-112.
41参见Hsinchun Chen. Computer-Assisted "Dark Web" Website and Forum Collection, Analysis and Visualization[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:121-131.
42 Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:174.
43 Brian Krebs. Feds Building Internet Monitoring Center. The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A3409-2003Jan30?language=printer.
44参见Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:181-189.
45 Yael Shahar. The Internet as a Tool for Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism[A]. in Centre of Excellence Defence Against Terrorism, ed. Response to Cyber Terrorism[M].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2008:109-110.
46 Peter S. Probst. Terrorism:Perception, Illusion and the Art of Political Warfare[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:11.
47“乌力玛”是对穆斯林的学者,或伊斯兰教宗教、法律权威的称呼。
48 Yael Yehoshua. Islamist Websites as an Integral Part of Jihad:A General Overview[A]. in Boaz Ganor. Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007:65.
49 Dorothy E. Denning. Terror's Web:How the Internet Is Transforming Terrorism[C].in Younne Jewkes and Majid Yar, eds. Handbook on Internet Crime[M]. London:Willan Publishing,2009.or http://www.cyberloop.org/academic-papers/terrors-web-how-the-internet-is-transforming-terroris m-dorothy-denning-2010.html. accessed on May 25,2010.
50参见Tim Stevens and Peter R. Neumann. Countering Online Radicalisation:A Strategy for Action[R]. London:The International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence (ICSR),2009:15-19.
51 Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:197.
52 Maura Conway. Terrorism & New Media:The Cyber Battle Space. P26-27. http://doras.dcu.ie/500/1/terrorism_new_media_2007.pdf.
53参见Yael Shahar. The Internet as a Tool for Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism[A]. in Centre of Excellence Defence Against Terrorism, ed. Response to Cyber Terrorism[M].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2008:107.
54 Luibomyr Tokar. Hypermedia Communication as a Modern Means for the Creation of Terrorist and Counterterrorist Consciousness[A]. in Boaz Ganor, Katharina Von Knop and Carlos Duarte,eds. Hypermedia Seduction for Terrorist Recruiting[C].Amsterdam:IOS Press,2007: 113.
55 Ibid:245.
56 Michael Evans. MI5's Spymaster Jonathan Evans Comes out of the Shadows[N]. The Times,7 January 2009. quoted in Tim Stevens and Peter R. Neumann. Countering Online Radicalisation: A Strategy for Action[R]. London:The International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence (ICSR),2009:38.
57参见Gabriel Weimann. Online Terrorists Prey on the Vulnerable:Websites target marginalized women and youth, recruiting for suicide missions. Yale Global,5 March 2008. http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/online-terrorists-prey-vulnerable.
58“媒介暴力”是指媒体中涉及的暴力内容对受众,尤其是青少年起到的不良示范作用,使他们在日常生活中,更容易产生暴力行为,即接触较多暴力内容的人,比接触较少暴力内 容的人,在行为上更具攻击性。参见：[美]詹宁斯·布莱恩特、苏珊·汤普森著,陆剑南等译.传媒效果概论[M].北京：中国传媒大学出版社,2006：143-158；董璐.传播学核心理论与概念[M].北京：北京大学：出版社,2008：196-198.
59参见：Media Awareness Network website, http://www.media-awareness.ca.; MNet. Online Hate:An Introduction. http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/online_hate/index.cfm. accessed on December 17,2010.; Tim Stevens and Peter R. Neumann. Countering Online Radicalisation:A Strategy for Action[R]. London:The International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence (ICSR),2009:41.
60参见Gabriel Weimann. Terror on the Internet:The New Arena, the New Challenge[M]. Washington, D. C. United States Institute of Peace Press,2006:199.
61“反诽谤联盟”是美国著名的犹太人非政府组织。其主要日标是监督、解决各种对犹太人的诽谤,以及所有宣扬种族仇恨的行为。参见其官方网站：http://www.adl.org.
62 Tim Stevens and Peter R. Neumann. Countering Online Radicalisation:A Strategy for Action[R]. London:The International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence (ICSR),2009:35.
63匡文波.网络传播学概论(第3版)[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2009：67.
64数据来源：中国互联网信息中心.第27次中国互联网络发展状况统计报告[R].2011：12.
65除此之外,《互联网上网服务营业场所管理条例》、《互联网出版管理暂行规定》、《互联网电子公告服务管理规定》、《博客服务自律公约》《计算机信息网络国际联网安全保护管理办法》《互联网文化管理暂行规定》等行政法规中,也有类似的规定。
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67参见：卓新平.中国宗教的当代走向[J].学术月刊,2008(10：5-9.
68同上书：5.
69参见：刘金光.国际互联网与宗教渗透[J].中国宗教,2003(8)：27-29.
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3可参见：金宜久,吴云贵.当代宗教与极端主义[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008：124-125.
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