美国网络中立规制研究：脉络、实质与启示
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摘要
微博、搜索引擎、拍卖网站、游戏、VoIP、P2P等应用的成功之处,在于网络的开放互联支持了人们形成社交圈和创造内容。然而,作为把关人的网络服务提供商正无形地控制着在其网络上的应用和内容。网络中立规制关系着互联网的未来,是21世纪传播政策的重大挑战。
网络中立是个极其复杂的概念,对其准确界定显然是个难题。在内涵上,美国学界的普遍认识是,网络中立是网络服务提供商应平等对待所有合法的内容/应用/设备的网络接入,而不应歧视不附属于自己或合作方的内容/应用/设备的基本原则。在外延上,网络中立主要关注三个重要的把关机制：阻挡、降级和优化。网络中立的思想来源在于公共传输、普遍服务、开放接入和技术中立。
美国网络中立的规制实践经历了两个重要的变迁期：一是小布什适度规制时期,二是奥巴马强度规制时期。以FCC和议员提案为聚焦点,以欧盟为参照点,力求从两个不同的规制时期反映美国网络中立规制的基本特征：规制理念上强调行政先行；规制主体上体现规制权威和党派利益之间的博弈；规制目标上注重促进国内市场竞争和确保全球互联网主导权；规制手段上重在逐案判决。
美国网络中立的规制实质是深入认识美国互联网管理的重要聚焦点。基于传播政治经济学的三个理论参数,认为从商品化起点看,流量商品化带来分层优化是美国网络中立规制的微观动因,整个互联网络商品化则是美国网络中立规制的宏观动因,本质上是新自由主义经济运动的产物；从空间化起点看,美国网络中立规制是维护商业权力在网络空间中纵横融合的制度保障,在全球利益和本国利益上实行双重标准,是美国“互联网自由”外交策略的制度设计；从结构化起点看,网络中立规制体现了美国在维护普遍接入服务上的积极努力,反映了美国各利益主体在网络规制理念上不同取向的制度博弈。
美国网络中立争论是当前支离破碎的传播政策难以适应媒介融合时代的结果,集中映射了互联网管理的众多纠结点。我国在此议题上虽然问题意识不强,但歧视性问题不可避免存在,相关规制文本也相对缺失。美国网络中立规制对我国具有重要的启示价值,如需要处理好伦理权利与市场权力、信息自由流动和网络主权安全、宏观规制与微观规制、事先规制与事后规制等方面的均衡。基于网络层级结构,我国在网络中立议题上应从水平层面和垂直层面两个路径来进行制度设计。在水平层面上,应采纳公共模式,强化政府规制以确保互联互通和普遍服务；在垂直层面上,应采纳市场模式,区分合理和不合理做法以确保开放接入和创新活力。
The success of diverse Internet applications, such as weibo, search engine, auction sites, Internet game, VoIP, P2P etc., mainly rely on the open and inter-connect characteristics of Internet, which can support people to form a social network and create various contents. However, working as the role of a gatekeeper, the network service provider inevitably controls the applications and contents which access to their network. Network neutrality regulation relates to the future of Internet, and is the major challenge of communication policies in 21th century.
Network neutrality is an extremely complicated concept, and isn't easy to be defined precisely and concisely. The universal perspective on the essence of network neutrality in U.S. academic is that network service providers should equally treat all the legal contents, applications and attachments on the network without any discrimination to those that aren't affiliated to its own or partners. In the peripherals, network neutrality mainly concentrates on three important discrimination behaviors, namely, blocking, degrading and prioritizing. The idea of network neutrality comes from common carriage, universal service, open access and technology neutrality.
Two important transformation periods have been undergone in the enforcement of network neutrality regulation in U.S. The first one is the moderate regulation period during the Presidency of George W. Bush, and the other one is the intensive regulation period in the Presidency of Obama. By focusing on the proposals from FCC and senators, as well as referring to the European Union, this thesis strives to expose the basic characteristics of U.S. network neutrality regulations from the two different regulation periods. That is, administration execution in advance is stressed in regulation ideas; regulation authority and gaming for parties'interest are reflected in main body of regulation; promoting competition in domestic market and ensuring the dominance to global Internet are emphasized in the regulation objective; case-by-case adjudications is focused in the regulation manner.
The essence of U.S. network neutrality regulation is the crucial focal point to deeply understand the U.S. Internet regulation. The three theoretical parameters based on the political economy of communication suggest that from the perspective of commodification, the network neutrality regulation in U.S. is an institutional arrangement of various kinds of discrimination caused by the traffic commercialization, and is the extension of neo-liberal economy in the 20th century. From the view of point of spatialization, the network neutrality regulation of U.S. is the regulation guarantee to maintain the vertical and horizontal integration of commercial power in cyberspace. By executing double standards to the global and national interests, it is also recognized as a diplomatic strategy design of the so-called'Internet Freedom'. From the perspective of structuration, network neutrality regulation shows the active effort of U.S. in the aspect of maintaining universal access to Internet service, and also reveals the institutional gaming of interest bodies on the idea of network regulation.
The reason of the universal controversy on the U.S. network neutrality is mainly because current fragmented communication policies are unable to adapt to the current media-integration era. Although the problem consciousness on this issue is not very intensive in our country, the discrimination problem does exist unavoidably. The related regulation text is also very scarce. The network neutrality regulation of U.S. has a very valuable implication to our country, such as dealing well with the balance between ethical right and market power, free flowing of information and security of network sovereignty, macro-regulation and micro-regulation, before-regulation and after-regulation etc.. Based on the OSI, our country should try to design its regulations on network neutrality from horizontal and vertical aspects. In the horizontal aspect, the goverment regulation should be strengthened so as to ensure the availability of interconnection and universal service. In the vertical aspect, reasonable and unreasonable practices should be distinguished clearly so as to guarantee the openness of access and creativity on the network.
网络中立是个极其复杂的概念,对其准确界定显然是个难题。在内涵上,美国学界的普遍认识是,网络中立是网络服务提供商应平等对待所有合法的内容/应用/设备的网络接入,而不应歧视不附属于自己或合作方的内容/应用/设备的基本原则。在外延上,网络中立主要关注三个重要的把关机制：阻挡、降级和优化。网络中立的思想来源在于公共传输、普遍服务、开放接入和技术中立。
美国网络中立的规制实践经历了两个重要的变迁期：一是小布什适度规制时期,二是奥巴马强度规制时期。以FCC和议员提案为聚焦点,以欧盟为参照点,力求从两个不同的规制时期反映美国网络中立规制的基本特征：规制理念上强调行政先行；规制主体上体现规制权威和党派利益之间的博弈；规制目标上注重促进国内市场竞争和确保全球互联网主导权；规制手段上重在逐案判决。
美国网络中立的规制实质是深入认识美国互联网管理的重要聚焦点。基于传播政治经济学的三个理论参数,认为从商品化起点看,流量商品化带来分层优化是美国网络中立规制的微观动因,整个互联网络商品化则是美国网络中立规制的宏观动因,本质上是新自由主义经济运动的产物；从空间化起点看,美国网络中立规制是维护商业权力在网络空间中纵横融合的制度保障,在全球利益和本国利益上实行双重标准,是美国“互联网自由”外交策略的制度设计；从结构化起点看,网络中立规制体现了美国在维护普遍接入服务上的积极努力,反映了美国各利益主体在网络规制理念上不同取向的制度博弈。
美国网络中立争论是当前支离破碎的传播政策难以适应媒介融合时代的结果,集中映射了互联网管理的众多纠结点。我国在此议题上虽然问题意识不强,但歧视性问题不可避免存在,相关规制文本也相对缺失。美国网络中立规制对我国具有重要的启示价值,如需要处理好伦理权利与市场权力、信息自由流动和网络主权安全、宏观规制与微观规制、事先规制与事后规制等方面的均衡。基于网络层级结构,我国在网络中立议题上应从水平层面和垂直层面两个路径来进行制度设计。在水平层面上,应采纳公共模式,强化政府规制以确保互联互通和普遍服务；在垂直层面上,应采纳市场模式,区分合理和不合理做法以确保开放接入和创新活力。
The success of diverse Internet applications, such as weibo, search engine, auction sites, Internet game, VoIP, P2P etc., mainly rely on the open and inter-connect characteristics of Internet, which can support people to form a social network and create various contents. However, working as the role of a gatekeeper, the network service provider inevitably controls the applications and contents which access to their network. Network neutrality regulation relates to the future of Internet, and is the major challenge of communication policies in 21th century.
Network neutrality is an extremely complicated concept, and isn't easy to be defined precisely and concisely. The universal perspective on the essence of network neutrality in U.S. academic is that network service providers should equally treat all the legal contents, applications and attachments on the network without any discrimination to those that aren't affiliated to its own or partners. In the peripherals, network neutrality mainly concentrates on three important discrimination behaviors, namely, blocking, degrading and prioritizing. The idea of network neutrality comes from common carriage, universal service, open access and technology neutrality.
Two important transformation periods have been undergone in the enforcement of network neutrality regulation in U.S. The first one is the moderate regulation period during the Presidency of George W. Bush, and the other one is the intensive regulation period in the Presidency of Obama. By focusing on the proposals from FCC and senators, as well as referring to the European Union, this thesis strives to expose the basic characteristics of U.S. network neutrality regulations from the two different regulation periods. That is, administration execution in advance is stressed in regulation ideas; regulation authority and gaming for parties'interest are reflected in main body of regulation; promoting competition in domestic market and ensuring the dominance to global Internet are emphasized in the regulation objective; case-by-case adjudications is focused in the regulation manner.
The essence of U.S. network neutrality regulation is the crucial focal point to deeply understand the U.S. Internet regulation. The three theoretical parameters based on the political economy of communication suggest that from the perspective of commodification, the network neutrality regulation in U.S. is an institutional arrangement of various kinds of discrimination caused by the traffic commercialization, and is the extension of neo-liberal economy in the 20th century. From the view of point of spatialization, the network neutrality regulation of U.S. is the regulation guarantee to maintain the vertical and horizontal integration of commercial power in cyberspace. By executing double standards to the global and national interests, it is also recognized as a diplomatic strategy design of the so-called'Internet Freedom'. From the perspective of structuration, network neutrality regulation shows the active effort of U.S. in the aspect of maintaining universal access to Internet service, and also reveals the institutional gaming of interest bodies on the idea of network regulation.
The reason of the universal controversy on the U.S. network neutrality is mainly because current fragmented communication policies are unable to adapt to the current media-integration era. Although the problem consciousness on this issue is not very intensive in our country, the discrimination problem does exist unavoidably. The related regulation text is also very scarce. The network neutrality regulation of U.S. has a very valuable implication to our country, such as dealing well with the balance between ethical right and market power, free flowing of information and security of network sovereignty, macro-regulation and micro-regulation, before-regulation and after-regulation etc.. Based on the OSI, our country should try to design its regulations on network neutrality from horizontal and vertical aspects. In the horizontal aspect, the goverment regulation should be strengthened so as to ensure the availability of interconnection and universal service. In the vertical aspect, reasonable and unreasonable practices should be distinguished clearly so as to guarantee the openness of access and creativity on the network.
引文
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②同上,P62-77
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① Nate Anderson.Deep Packet Inspection Meets Net Neutrality[EB/OL].July 25,2007. http://arstechnica.com/articles/culture/Deep-packet-inspection-meets-net-neutrality.ars/1
① The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998[EB/OL]. http://www.copyright.gov/legislation/dmca.pdf
①2004年大选时,一个名叫“说出真相的快艇老兵”的民间政治团体投放大量电视广告,质疑民主党候选人克里宣传越战事迹的真实性,对克里的支持率造成重大打击。
① Christopher T. Marsden.Net Neutrality:Towards a Co-Regulatory Solution[M]. London:Bloomsbury Academic,2010,112.
①E911：一种紧急求助服务,即提供呼叫者的位置以便及时救援,他们将这种移动位置服务命名为E911。
②广播标签(broadcast flag),指在微波数字电视视频流中加载的标记。假如该标记处于启用状态,那么就要求电视机必须采取版权保护对策,以防电视节目通过互联网二次发送。
① House Committee on the Judiciary.Hearing on "Network Neutrality:Competition, Innovation, and Nondiscriminatory Access"[EB/OL].109th Cong.,2nd sess.,2006 (testimony of Tim Wu).http://judiciary.house.gov/media/pdfs/wu042506.pdf.
①新华网.奥巴马上海演讲与回答学生网友提问[EB/OL].http://www.xinhuanet.com/world/obama/wzzb.htm
①Hillary Rodham Clinton. Remarks on Internet Freedom [EB/OL]. http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2010/01/135519.htm
①美国国务院国际信息局(IIP).国务卿希拉里·克林顿以“互联网的是与非：网络世界的选择与挑战”为题发表讲话[EB/OL].http:／／iipdigital.usembassy.gov／iipdigital-mgck/publications.html#axzzlsDKT38qz
①星岛环球网评论员.社交网络——美国外交的新武器[EB/OL].http:／／www.chinadaily.com.cn/hqzx/2011-03/23/content_12212732.htm:美国国务院国际信息局(IIP).国际互联网活动人士获美国的技术支持和培训[EB/OL].http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/chinese/article/2011／06/20110617131234x0.8081738.html#axzzl sDKT38qz
① Cybersecurity and Internet Freedom Act of 2011(S.413)[EB/OL].February 17,2011. http://www.opencongress.org/bill／112-s413／show
②新华网.对外鼓吹自由对内严格管制美互联网政策暴露虚伪面目[EB/OL].http:／／news.xinhuanet.com/world/2011-02/21／c_121105990.htm
③杨丽明.抗议国会法案损害互联网自由,美国多家网站罢工[N].中国青年报,2012年1月20日.
① 109TH CONGRESS 2D SESSION H. R.4780, Global Online Freedom Act of 2006. http://www. gpo. gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-109hr4780ih/pdf/BILLS-109hr4780ih.pdf
②112TH CONGRESS 1ST SESSION H. R.1389, Global Online Freedom Act of 2011. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-112hr1389ih/pdf/BILLS-112hr1389ih.pdf
① Rebecca Mackinnon.Internet Freedom Starts at Home—The United States needs to practice what it preaches online.April 3,2012. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/04/03/The_Worlds_No_1_Threat_to_Internet_Freedom?page=0,0
①中国外交部网站.维也纳外交关系公约[EB/OL].http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/chn/pds／ziliao/tytj/tyfg／t82926.htm按照1961年4月18日签署的《维也纳外交关系公约》,外交官在他国享受豁免权,其所在的国家不允许将外交官加以逮捕、扣留或审问。第二十七条对“外交邮袋”有具体的规定。
①Broadband Connectivity Competition Policy Workshop-Comment(V070000)[EB/OL]. http://www.ftc.gov/os/comments/broadbandwrkshop/527031-00053.pdf.
①外交部：中国互联网是开放的,管理措施国际通行[EB/OL].http://news.qq.com/a/20100114/002791.htm
①香港商报·中国窗.反网络审查应列外交政策[EB/0L].http://www.hkcd.com.hk/content/2010-03/26/content_2498535.htm
①信息社会突尼斯议程[EB/OL].http://www.un.org/chinese/events/wsis/agenda.htm
①FCC. Universal Service[EB/OL].http://www.fcc.gov/wcb/tapd/universal_service
① High-Speed Services for Internet Access:Status as of December 31,2008[EB/OL]. http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-296239A1.pdf
① National Broadband Plan.Charpter3:Current State of the ecosystem[EB/OL]. http://www.broadband.gov/plan/3-current-state-of-the-ecosystem/
① Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. OECD Broadband Statistics to December 2006[EB/OL]. http://www.oecd.org/document/7/0,3343,en_2649_201185_38446855_1_1_1_1,00.html. http://www.oecd.org/document/54/0,3746,en_2649_34225_38690102_1_1_1_1,00.html
② Nicholas Economides.Net Neutrality,Non-Discrimination and Digital Distribution of Content Through the Intemet[J]. Journal of Law and Policy.2008,4(2):229-231
①National Broadband Plan.Charpter8:Availability[EB/OL]. http://www.broadband.gov/plan/8-availability/
②李维.美日韩宽带战略：突破瓶颈各有侧重[N].中国电子报,2010年4月20日
①National Broadband Plan.Charpter8:Availability [EB/OL]. http://www.broadband.gov/plan/8-availability/
①National Broadband Plan.Charpter8:Availability[EB/OL]. http://www.broadband.gov/plan/8-availability/
① Rob Frieden.Revenge of the Bellheads:How the Netheads Lost Control of the Internet[J]. Telecommunications Policy, 2002,26(6):125-144.
① Craig Aron.One Million Americans Urge Senate to Save the Internet[EB/OL].June 14, 2006.http://www.savetheinternet.com/=pressl 1.
①Bloomberg News. AT&T, Comcast Rout Google in'Net Neutrality'Battle[EB/OL]. July 20,2006.
① Bloomberg News. AT&T, Comcast Rout Google in'Net Neutrality'Battle[EB/OL]. July 20,2006. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=a.yXfQUu.sEo
② Campaign contributions from telephone utilities as of May 9,2006[EB/OL]. http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Network_Neutrality_Legislation
① Ted Hearn.Mad Money:Cable,Phone,Net Companies Have Spent$110 this Year to Influence Telecom Reform—Was it Worth it[EB/OL]?Multichannel News,October 23,2006. http://www.multichannel.com//article/CA6383576.html
②Campaign contributions from telephone utilities as of May 9,2006[EB/OL]. http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Network_Neutrality_Legislation
①本节自引罗昕.美国“网络中立”争论：在接入控制与开放之间[J].新闻与传播研究,2010,(3)：92-98
① It's All About "Scale and Scope[EB/OL]. Businessweek, Online Extra,November 7,2005. http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_45/b3958092.htm
① David p. Mcclure. Network Neutrality:Phantom Problem, Unintended Consequences:a Primer for Regulators, Legislators and the Media on 'Network Neutrality'[EB/OL].March,2006.http://www.usiia.org/pubs/NNPrimer.doc.
① Net Neutrality Hearing, supra note 18 (written testimony of Vinton Cerf)[EB/OL]. http://commerce.senate.gov/pdf/cerf-020706.pdf.
②“有围墙的花园”是一种在不接入更广的互联网下提供的IP内容服务。它有更广的规制含义,涉及到把关人的发展而不是开放接入模式。人们将它与公共资源(commons)相类比,设想一个有围墙的花园受到保护,进或出要付费。相比,公共资源是开放接入,没有控制。有围墙的花园把关人可能是花园的所有者,运营商。“有围墙的花园”一直以来描述为接入提供商绑定的内容和服务。内容或服务可从第三方通过直接支付的交易来获得。分享广告收入协议越来越成为普遍模式。接入提供商提供的服务将用户限制接受其围墙内的内容。从这个意义上说,接入提供商是一个把关者。
①Christian Coalition of America.Christian Coalition Announces Support for Net Neutrality to Prevent Giant Phone and Cable Companies from Discriminating Against Web Sites[EB/OL], May 17, 2006.http://www.cc.org/content.cfm?id=329&srch=neutrality.
② Giinter Knieps,Patrick Zenhausern.The fallacies of network neutrality regulation[C].Paper to be presented at the 18th European Regional ITS Conference,September 2-5,2007.6
① Net Neutrality Hearing, supra note 18 (written testimony of Vint Cerf)[EB/OL]. http://commerce.senate.gov/pdf/cerf-020706.pdf.
② Letter from Vint Cerf to Joe Barton and John Dingell[EB/OL].November 8,2005. http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2005/11/vint-cerf-speaks-out-on-net-neutrality.html.
① Progress and Freedom Foundation.PFF's May Warns of Effects of Network Neutrality Position[EB/OL]. April 26, 2006.www.pff.org/news/news/2006/042506maynetneutrality.html.
② Net Neutrality Hearing, supra note 18 (written testimony of Vinton Cerf)[EB/OL] http://commerce.senate.gov/pdf/cerf-020706.pdf.
① Kim Hart.Republican leaders to Obama:Net neutrality regulations are harmful[EB/OL]. http://thehill.com/homenews/house/61469-republican-leaders-to-obama-net-neutrality-regulations-are-harmful.
① Testimony of Lawrence Lessig. Hearing on Net Neutrality Before the S.Comm.on Commerce,Science,and Transportation,109th Cong[EB/OL]. February 7,2006. http://www.lessig.org/blog/archives/Lessig_Testimony_2.pdf
② Wyden Moves To Ensure Fairness of Internet Usage With New Net Neutrality Bill[EB/OL]. March 6,2006.http://wyden.senate.gov/media/2006/03022006 net_neutrality bill.html.
③ cc.org,Legislative Issue, Passing 'Net Neutrality' to ensure fairness for all on the Internet[EB/OL].http://www.cc.org/content.cfm?id=368&srch=net%20neutrality.
①Alex Altman.Net Neutrality:Flash Point for Foes of Big Government.Time[EB/OL], September 8,2010.http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2016316,00.html.
② American Library Association. "Net Neutrality"[EB/OL]. http://www.ala.org/ala/washoff/woissues/techinttele/networkneutrality/netneutrality.cfm;Craig Fields.What the Misguided Have Missed Regarding Network Neutrality[EB/OL].May 2006. http://www.gunowners.org/op0618.htm
③ Save the Internet Coalition.http://www.savetheinternet.com
④ Center for Democracy and Technology. Preserving the Essential Internet for White Paper Series[R].http://www.cdt.org/speech/20060620neutrality.pdf
① Alan Davidson and Tom Tauke.A joint policy proposal for an open Internet[EB/OL]. Google Public Policy Blog, August 9,2010. http://googlepublicpolicy.blogspot.com/2010/08/joint-policy-proposal-for-open-internet.html.
①R.McChesney & J. Podesta.Let there be wi-fi[EB/OL]. Washingtonmonthly. http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2006/0601.podesta.html
①熊飞.互联互通是三网融合重大障碍[EB/OL].http://www.sarft.net/a/23053.aspx
②王云辉.信产部铁腕修典互联互通新政在望[EB/OL].http://www.people.com.cn/GB/it/1065/2044071.html
①朱剑红.电信联通涉嫌价格垄断发改委启动调查[EB/OL]. http://finance.people.com.cn/GB/16193532.html
①发改委反垄断调查：中国电信联通涉嫌垄断[N].重庆晚报.http://tech.sina.com.cn/t/2011-11-10/15266302612.shtml
②混淆视听,误导公众——驳央视对电信、联通涉嫌价格垄断的报道[N].人民邮电报头版,2011年11月11日.
①中国社会科学网.2011年《信息化蓝皮书》发布[EB/OL].2011年7月29日.http://www.cssn.cn/news/386368.htm.
②CNNIC第29次中国互联网络发展状况调查统计报告[R].2012,5.http://www.cnnic.cn/research/bgxz/tjbg/201201／P020120118512855484817.pdf.
③中国社会科学网.2011年《信息化蓝皮书》发布[EB/OL].2011年7月29日.http://www.cssn.cn/news/386368.htm
①关于百度吧中有关汉中电信贴子的函[EB/OL].http:／／hi.baidu.com／%BA%BA%BD%AD%BO%D7%FO%D8/blog/item/e7382f4ecf084fOcb3de05a6. html
①入局凤凰卫视 中移动挺进传媒业[EB/OL].新京报,2006年6月9日.http://www.china.com.cn/chinese/news/1235412.htm
②王姗姗.中国移动欲改革与腾讯移动增值业务的合作模式[EB/OL].http:／／it.sohu.com/20101230/n278590026.shtml
③新浪科技.中国移动与新浪等公司签署战略合作协议[EB/OL].http://www.chinaz.com/news/2011／1214/226380.shtml
①中国电信与新浪合作推微博[EB/OL]. http://news. cntv.cn/20110610/100851.shtml
①自引罗听.美国“网络中立”争论：在接入控制与开放之间[J].新闻与传播研究,2010,(3)：96-97
①自引罗昕.美国“网络中立”争论：在接入控制与开放之间[J].新闻与传播研究,2010,(3)：96-97
②自引罗昕.美国“网络中立”争论：在接入控制与开放之间[J].新闻与传播研究,2010,(3)：96-97
①自引罗昕.美国“网络中立”争论：在接入控制与开放之间[J].新闻与传播研究,2010,(3)：96-97
②第四届中英互联网圆桌会议在京举行[EB/OL].http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2011-09-29/132623238049.shtml
①自引罗听.美国“网络中立”争论：在接入控制与开放之间[J].新闻与传播研究,2010,(3)：96-97
①熊飞.他山之石——互联互通的国外实践[EB/OL]. http://www.sarft.net/a/23057. aspx.
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②自引罗昕.美国“网络中立”争论：在接入控制与开放之间[J].新闻与传播研究,2010,(3)：96-97
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②同②。
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①1934,the communication act,SEC.3. [47 U.S.C.153] DEFINITIONS.
②1934,the communication act,SEC.202. [47 U.S.C.202] DEFINITIONS AND PREFERENCES.(a)
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①National Cable & Telecommunications v. Brand X Internet Services & Federal Communications Commission v. Brand X Internet Services[EB/OL]. http://www.law.duke.edu/publiclaw/supremecourtonline/certGrants/2004/fccvbra
①自引罗昕.美国“网络中立”争论：在接入控制与开放之间[J].新闻与传播研究,2010,(3)：92.
② NAT'L ASS'N OF REG. UTIL.Resolution Regarding Citizen Access to Internet Content (2002)[EB/OL] http://www.naruc.org/Resolutions/2002%20Intemet%20Content.pdf.
① Michael K. Powell.Preserving Internet Freedom:Guiding Principles for the Industry[[EB/OL].February 8,2004. http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-243556Al.pdf.
② Letter from the Coalition of Broadband Users and Innovators to FCC Secretary Marlene H. Dortch[EB/OL]. FCC Docket 02-52, July 17,2003. http://ecfsdocs.fcc.gov/filings/2003/07/17/5509438472.html
① Policy Statement In the Matters of Appropriate Framework for Broadband Access[EB/OL]. September 23,2005.http://www.publicknowledge.org/pdf/FCC-05-151Al.pdf
② FCC Adopts Policy Statement on Broadband Internet Access[EB/OL]. August 5,2005. http://www.fcc.gov/headlines2005.html.
③ FCC Approves SBC/AT&T and Verizon/MCI Mergers[EB/OL].October 31,2005. http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-261936A1.doc
① Associated Press Confirms That Comcast Blocks Some BitTorrent Traffic, Despite Comcast Denials[EB/OL].http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20071019/115242.shtml
① Ex Parte Submission of the United States Department of Justice.In the Matter of Economic Issues in Broadband Competition:A National Broadband Plan for Our Future[EB/OL]. GN Docket No.09-51. January4,2010. http://fjallfoss.fcc.gov/ecfs/comment/view?id=6015504395.
② Ryan Singel.Court Drives FCC Towards Nuclear Option to Regulate Broadband[N].Wired, April 6, 2010.http://www.wired.com/epicenter/2010/04/fcc-next/.
① The Office of the President-Elect. Agenda:Technology[EB/OL]. http://change.gov/agenda/technology agenda/
② Anna Broache.Obama pledges Net neutrality laws if elected president[EB/OL].CNET News, October 29,2007.http://news.cnet.com/8301-10784_3-9806707-7.html
① Jesse Lee.That Time You Interviewed the President [EB/OL]. February 1,2010. http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2010/02/01/time-you-interviewed-president
① FCC NOTICE OF INQUIRY (GN Docket No.09-51).In the Matter of A National Broadband Plan for Our Future[EB/OL].April 8,2009. http://hraunfoss.fcc. gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-09-31 Al.pdf
② FCC Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (GN Docket No.09-191).In the Matter of Preserving the Open Internet and Broadband Industry Practices[EB/OL].October 22,2009. http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-09-93A1.pdf
③ Julius Genachowski.The Open Internet:Preserving the Freedom to Innovate[EB/OL]. September 21,2009. http://blog.broadband.gov/?entryld= 10646.
① Carla Main.Naked Access, Net Neutrality, News Corp.:Compliance[EB/OL]. Bloomberg. November 4,2010.http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-11-04/naked-access-net-neutrality-news-corp-compliance-updatel-.htm 1.
② Josh Silver.Why it's'Radical'to Fight Corporate Control of Government (And Why Net Neutrality Is a Remedy) [EB/OL]. Huffington Post. October 18,2010. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/j osh-silver/why-its-radical-to-fight-_b_766694.html.
① Babette E.L. Boliek.FCC Regulation Versus Antitrust:How Net Neutrality is Defining the Boundaries[J]. Boston College Law Review,2011,52:1645.
② Julius Genachowski. The Third Way:A Narrowly Tailored Broadband Framework.May 6, 2010[EB/OL].http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs public/attachmatch/DOC-297944A1.pdf; Austin Schlick.FCC General Counsel, Remarks, A Third-Way Legal Framework for Addressing the Comcast Dilemma[EB/OL].May 6,2010. http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-297945A1.pdf.
① Advanced Telecommunications Incentives (47 U.S.C.1302) [EB/OL]. February 1,2010. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/uscode-2009-title47/pdf/uscode-2009-title47-chap12-sec1302.pdf
② FCC to Seek Best Legal Framework for Broadband Internet Access[EB/OL], June 17,2010. http://transition.fcc.gov/Daily_Releases/Daily_Business/2010/db0617/DOC-298861A1.pdf
① FCC,Report and Order In the Matter of Preserving the Open Internet Broadband Industry Practice (GN Docket No.09-191, WC Docket No.07-52) [EB/OL]. December,2010:34-35.http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-06-178A1.pdf
① FCC,Report and Order In the Matter of Preserving the Open Internet Broadband Industry Practice (GN Docket No.09-191, WC Docket No.07-52) [EB/OL].December, 2010:40-42.http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-06-178A1.pdf
①FCC.Report and Order In the Matter of Preserving the Open Internet Broadband Industry Practice (GN Docket No.09-191, WC Docket No.07-52) [EB/OL].December,2010:52-58. http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-06-178A1.pdf
②同上,P62-77
①FCC以3票对2票表决批准网络中立性规则[EB/OL].http://www.chinanews.com/it／2010／12-22/2737476.shtml
②曹亮.美众议院投票否则FCC网络中立性规制[EB/OL].http://tech.sina.com.cn/t/2011-04-12／11535394771.shtml
③网络中立一波三折美国上演最后博弈[EB/OL].http://it.people.com.cn/h/2011／1207/c227888-2885638391.html#
① W. Mark Crane.the Impact of Regulatory Costs on Small Firms[EB/OL].Apil, 2005. http://www.sba.gov/advo/research/rs264tot.pdf.
① DIRECTIVE 2009/140/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL[J].Official Journal of the European Union(L 337/37). November 25,2009. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:337:0037:0069:EN:PDF
① FCC Ruling (08-183). Memorandum Opinion and Order[EB/OL].August 1,2008. http://www.alain-bensoussan.com/wp-content/uploads/252926.pdf
② DIRECTIVE 2002/21/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on a common regulatory framework for electronic communications networks and services (Framework Directive) [J].Official Journal of the European Union(L 108/33). March7,2002. http://www.bipt.be/GetDocument.aspx?forObjectID=3236&lang=en
① DIRECTIVE 2009/140/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL(L 337/37)[J].Official Journal of the European Union,November25, 2009.http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:337:0037:0069:EN:PDF
①人民网.未来十年改变世界十大技术：虚拟人成劳动大军[EB/OL].http://www.people.com.cn/h/2011／0722/c25408-1-2352053325.html
②新浪科技.AT&T称互联网将于2010年达到容量极限[EB/OL].http://tech.sina.com.cn/i／2008-04-19/08432148692.shtml
①杨然.Exabyte、Zettabyte背后涌动数字洪流[J].世界电信,2008,(5)：10
②自引罗听：美国“网络中立”争论：在接入控制与开放之间[J].新闻与传播研究,2010,(3)：93
① Jom Kruse.Network Neutrality and Quality of Service.Intereconomics[J], January/February 2008:26
① Walter Brenner, M.Dous,R.Zarnekow, et al.Quality in the Internet:Technical and economic development prospects[EB/OL].University of St. Gallen.2007. http://www.hsu-hh.de/kruse/index
①Adam D.Thierer.Net Neutralitydigital,discrimination or regulatory gamesmanship in cyberspace[J].policy analysis,2004, 507:9.
① Brad Stone.AT&T and Other I.S.P.'s May Be Getting Ready to Filter[EB/OL]. New York Times "Bits" blog.Jan.8.2008.http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/01/08/att-and-other-isps-may-be-getting-ready-to-filter/
① Net Neutrality[EB/OL].October 9,2007:6.http://ww2.cs.mu.oz.au/343/2007/a3/35.pdf
② B,Swandon.the Coming Exaflood[EB/OL].Wall Street Journal Opinion.January 2007. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB11692582318.html
③ Chris Williams.UK-.gov to spend ￡2bn on ISP tracking:Uberdatabase ditched, but IMP is go[EB/OL].April 27,2009.http://www.theregister.co.uk/2009/04/27/imp_consultation/.
① Nate Anderson.Deep Packet Inspection Meets Net Neutrality[EB/OL].July 25,2007. http://arstechnica.com/articles/culture/Deep-packet-inspection-meets-net-neutrality.ars/1
① The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998[EB/OL]. http://www.copyright.gov/legislation/dmca.pdf
①2004年大选时,一个名叫“说出真相的快艇老兵”的民间政治团体投放大量电视广告,质疑民主党候选人克里宣传越战事迹的真实性,对克里的支持率造成重大打击。
① Christopher T. Marsden.Net Neutrality:Towards a Co-Regulatory Solution[M]. London:Bloomsbury Academic,2010,112.
①E911：一种紧急求助服务,即提供呼叫者的位置以便及时救援,他们将这种移动位置服务命名为E911。
②广播标签(broadcast flag),指在微波数字电视视频流中加载的标记。假如该标记处于启用状态,那么就要求电视机必须采取版权保护对策,以防电视节目通过互联网二次发送。
① House Committee on the Judiciary.Hearing on "Network Neutrality:Competition, Innovation, and Nondiscriminatory Access"[EB/OL].109th Cong.,2nd sess.,2006 (testimony of Tim Wu).http://judiciary.house.gov/media/pdfs/wu042506.pdf.
①新华网.奥巴马上海演讲与回答学生网友提问[EB/OL].http://www.xinhuanet.com/world/obama/wzzb.htm
①Hillary Rodham Clinton. Remarks on Internet Freedom [EB/OL]. http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2010/01/135519.htm
①美国国务院国际信息局(IIP).国务卿希拉里·克林顿以“互联网的是与非：网络世界的选择与挑战”为题发表讲话[EB/OL].http:／／iipdigital.usembassy.gov／iipdigital-mgck/publications.html#axzzlsDKT38qz
①星岛环球网评论员.社交网络——美国外交的新武器[EB/OL].http:／／www.chinadaily.com.cn/hqzx/2011-03/23/content_12212732.htm:美国国务院国际信息局(IIP).国际互联网活动人士获美国的技术支持和培训[EB/OL].http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/chinese/article/2011／06/20110617131234x0.8081738.html#axzzl sDKT38qz
① Cybersecurity and Internet Freedom Act of 2011(S.413)[EB/OL].February 17,2011. http://www.opencongress.org/bill／112-s413／show
②新华网.对外鼓吹自由对内严格管制美互联网政策暴露虚伪面目[EB/OL].http:／／news.xinhuanet.com/world/2011-02/21／c_121105990.htm
③杨丽明.抗议国会法案损害互联网自由,美国多家网站罢工[N].中国青年报,2012年1月20日.
① 109TH CONGRESS 2D SESSION H. R.4780, Global Online Freedom Act of 2006. http://www. gpo. gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-109hr4780ih/pdf/BILLS-109hr4780ih.pdf
②112TH CONGRESS 1ST SESSION H. R.1389, Global Online Freedom Act of 2011. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-112hr1389ih/pdf/BILLS-112hr1389ih.pdf
① Rebecca Mackinnon.Internet Freedom Starts at Home—The United States needs to practice what it preaches online.April 3,2012. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/04/03/The_Worlds_No_1_Threat_to_Internet_Freedom?page=0,0
①中国外交部网站.维也纳外交关系公约[EB/OL].http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/chn/pds／ziliao/tytj/tyfg／t82926.htm按照1961年4月18日签署的《维也纳外交关系公约》,外交官在他国享受豁免权,其所在的国家不允许将外交官加以逮捕、扣留或审问。第二十七条对“外交邮袋”有具体的规定。
①Broadband Connectivity Competition Policy Workshop-Comment(V070000)[EB/OL]. http://www.ftc.gov/os/comments/broadbandwrkshop/527031-00053.pdf.
①外交部：中国互联网是开放的,管理措施国际通行[EB/OL].http://news.qq.com/a/20100114/002791.htm
①香港商报·中国窗.反网络审查应列外交政策[EB/0L].http://www.hkcd.com.hk/content/2010-03/26/content_2498535.htm
①信息社会突尼斯议程[EB/OL].http://www.un.org/chinese/events/wsis/agenda.htm
①FCC. Universal Service[EB/OL].http://www.fcc.gov/wcb/tapd/universal_service
① High-Speed Services for Internet Access:Status as of December 31,2008[EB/OL]. http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-296239A1.pdf
① National Broadband Plan.Charpter3:Current State of the ecosystem[EB/OL]. http://www.broadband.gov/plan/3-current-state-of-the-ecosystem/
① Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. OECD Broadband Statistics to December 2006[EB/OL]. http://www.oecd.org/document/7/0,3343,en_2649_201185_38446855_1_1_1_1,00.html. http://www.oecd.org/document/54/0,3746,en_2649_34225_38690102_1_1_1_1,00.html
② Nicholas Economides.Net Neutrality,Non-Discrimination and Digital Distribution of Content Through the Intemet[J]. Journal of Law and Policy.2008,4(2):229-231
①National Broadband Plan.Charpter8:Availability[EB/OL]. http://www.broadband.gov/plan/8-availability/
②李维.美日韩宽带战略：突破瓶颈各有侧重[N].中国电子报,2010年4月20日
①National Broadband Plan.Charpter8:Availability [EB/OL]. http://www.broadband.gov/plan/8-availability/
①National Broadband Plan.Charpter8:Availability[EB/OL]. http://www.broadband.gov/plan/8-availability/
① Rob Frieden.Revenge of the Bellheads:How the Netheads Lost Control of the Internet[J]. Telecommunications Policy, 2002,26(6):125-144.
① Craig Aron.One Million Americans Urge Senate to Save the Internet[EB/OL].June 14, 2006.http://www.savetheinternet.com/=pressl 1.
①Bloomberg News. AT&T, Comcast Rout Google in'Net Neutrality'Battle[EB/OL]. July 20,2006.
① Bloomberg News. AT&T, Comcast Rout Google in'Net Neutrality'Battle[EB/OL]. July 20,2006. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=a.yXfQUu.sEo
② Campaign contributions from telephone utilities as of May 9,2006[EB/OL]. http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Network_Neutrality_Legislation
① Ted Hearn.Mad Money:Cable,Phone,Net Companies Have Spent$110 this Year to Influence Telecom Reform—Was it Worth it[EB/OL]?Multichannel News,October 23,2006. http://www.multichannel.com//article/CA6383576.html
②Campaign contributions from telephone utilities as of May 9,2006[EB/OL]. http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Network_Neutrality_Legislation
①本节自引罗昕.美国“网络中立”争论：在接入控制与开放之间[J].新闻与传播研究,2010,(3)：92-98
① It's All About "Scale and Scope[EB/OL]. Businessweek, Online Extra,November 7,2005. http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_45/b3958092.htm
① David p. Mcclure. Network Neutrality:Phantom Problem, Unintended Consequences:a Primer for Regulators, Legislators and the Media on 'Network Neutrality'[EB/OL].March,2006.http://www.usiia.org/pubs/NNPrimer.doc.
① Net Neutrality Hearing, supra note 18 (written testimony of Vinton Cerf)[EB/OL]. http://commerce.senate.gov/pdf/cerf-020706.pdf.
②“有围墙的花园”是一种在不接入更广的互联网下提供的IP内容服务。它有更广的规制含义,涉及到把关人的发展而不是开放接入模式。人们将它与公共资源(commons)相类比,设想一个有围墙的花园受到保护,进或出要付费。相比,公共资源是开放接入,没有控制。有围墙的花园把关人可能是花园的所有者,运营商。“有围墙的花园”一直以来描述为接入提供商绑定的内容和服务。内容或服务可从第三方通过直接支付的交易来获得。分享广告收入协议越来越成为普遍模式。接入提供商提供的服务将用户限制接受其围墙内的内容。从这个意义上说,接入提供商是一个把关者。
①Christian Coalition of America.Christian Coalition Announces Support for Net Neutrality to Prevent Giant Phone and Cable Companies from Discriminating Against Web Sites[EB/OL], May 17, 2006.http://www.cc.org/content.cfm?id=329&srch=neutrality.
② Giinter Knieps,Patrick Zenhausern.The fallacies of network neutrality regulation[C].Paper to be presented at the 18th European Regional ITS Conference,September 2-5,2007.6
① Net Neutrality Hearing, supra note 18 (written testimony of Vint Cerf)[EB/OL]. http://commerce.senate.gov/pdf/cerf-020706.pdf.
② Letter from Vint Cerf to Joe Barton and John Dingell[EB/OL].November 8,2005. http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2005/11/vint-cerf-speaks-out-on-net-neutrality.html.
① Progress and Freedom Foundation.PFF's May Warns of Effects of Network Neutrality Position[EB/OL]. April 26, 2006.www.pff.org/news/news/2006/042506maynetneutrality.html.
② Net Neutrality Hearing, supra note 18 (written testimony of Vinton Cerf)[EB/OL] http://commerce.senate.gov/pdf/cerf-020706.pdf.
① Kim Hart.Republican leaders to Obama:Net neutrality regulations are harmful[EB/OL]. http://thehill.com/homenews/house/61469-republican-leaders-to-obama-net-neutrality-regulations-are-harmful.
① Testimony of Lawrence Lessig. Hearing on Net Neutrality Before the S.Comm.on Commerce,Science,and Transportation,109th Cong[EB/OL]. February 7,2006. http://www.lessig.org/blog/archives/Lessig_Testimony_2.pdf
② Wyden Moves To Ensure Fairness of Internet Usage With New Net Neutrality Bill[EB/OL]. March 6,2006.http://wyden.senate.gov/media/2006/03022006 net_neutrality bill.html.
③ cc.org,Legislative Issue, Passing 'Net Neutrality' to ensure fairness for all on the Internet[EB/OL].http://www.cc.org/content.cfm?id=368&srch=net%20neutrality.
①Alex Altman.Net Neutrality:Flash Point for Foes of Big Government.Time[EB/OL], September 8,2010.http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2016316,00.html.
② American Library Association. "Net Neutrality"[EB/OL]. http://www.ala.org/ala/washoff/woissues/techinttele/networkneutrality/netneutrality.cfm;Craig Fields.What the Misguided Have Missed Regarding Network Neutrality[EB/OL].May 2006. http://www.gunowners.org/op0618.htm
③ Save the Internet Coalition.http://www.savetheinternet.com
④ Center for Democracy and Technology. Preserving the Essential Internet for White Paper Series[R].http://www.cdt.org/speech/20060620neutrality.pdf
① Alan Davidson and Tom Tauke.A joint policy proposal for an open Internet[EB/OL]. Google Public Policy Blog, August 9,2010. http://googlepublicpolicy.blogspot.com/2010/08/joint-policy-proposal-for-open-internet.html.
①R.McChesney & J. Podesta.Let there be wi-fi[EB/OL]. Washingtonmonthly. http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2006/0601.podesta.html
①熊飞.互联互通是三网融合重大障碍[EB/OL].http://www.sarft.net/a/23053.aspx
②王云辉.信产部铁腕修典互联互通新政在望[EB/OL].http://www.people.com.cn/GB/it/1065/2044071.html
①朱剑红.电信联通涉嫌价格垄断发改委启动调查[EB/OL]. http://finance.people.com.cn/GB/16193532.html
①发改委反垄断调查：中国电信联通涉嫌垄断[N].重庆晚报.http://tech.sina.com.cn/t/2011-11-10/15266302612.shtml
②混淆视听,误导公众——驳央视对电信、联通涉嫌价格垄断的报道[N].人民邮电报头版,2011年11月11日.
①中国社会科学网.2011年《信息化蓝皮书》发布[EB/OL].2011年7月29日.http://www.cssn.cn/news/386368.htm.
②CNNIC第29次中国互联网络发展状况调查统计报告[R].2012,5.http://www.cnnic.cn/research/bgxz/tjbg/201201／P020120118512855484817.pdf.
③中国社会科学网.2011年《信息化蓝皮书》发布[EB/OL].2011年7月29日.http://www.cssn.cn/news/386368.htm
①关于百度吧中有关汉中电信贴子的函[EB/OL].http:／／hi.baidu.com／%BA%BA%BD%AD%BO%D7%FO%D8/blog/item/e7382f4ecf084fOcb3de05a6. html
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