尼罗河流域的水政治:历史与现实
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摘要
在跨境水资源的分配中,同一流域国家之间的权力关系是主要决定因素。埃及作为尼罗河流域最有权力的国家,长期以来主导着尼罗河流域的水政治,维持着符合其利益的尼罗河水资源分配机制。但20世纪末以来,随着尼罗河上游国家权力的上升,这一机制受到了挑战。上游国家开始实施自己的水资源开发计划,尼罗河流域的水资源开发格局发生了变化,上游与下游国家之间在水资源问题上的分歧不断凸显。下游国家坚持其对尼罗河水的既有权利不容谈判,而上游国家则主张所有流域国家都有平等的使用权,这使得覆盖整个尼罗河流域的全面法律机制难以建立。在多边合作机制缺失的情况下,流域国家倾向于采取单边行动来开发境内水资源。不断增长的水资源需求和单边水资源开发计划使尼罗河流域面临更大的不确定性。
The power relationship among countries in the same basin is the determining factor in the allocation of trans-border water resources. Remaining as the strongest power in the Nile Basin,Egypt has attained a position of hydro-hegemony in the basin and maintained the water allocation regime that best served its national interests. However,power of the upstream countries has been rising since the end of the 20th century,challenging this regime. The upstream countries have begun to conduct their own water exploitation projects,which has changed the picture of water exploitation in the basin.At the same time,the downstream countries diverge greatly from the upstream countries on the water utilization issue,which has become more obvious. While the downstream riparians insist that their acquired rights to the Nile water are unnegotiable,the upstream ones assert that all the riparians have equal rights to it. This dispute impedes progress on the comprehensive legal regime of the basin. Due to the lack of such a regime,the riparians tend to exploit water resources in their territories unilaterally.The Nile Basin is facing more uncertainty due to rising demands for water and unilateral water exploitation projects.
The power relationship among countries in the same basin is the determining factor in the allocation of trans-border water resources. Remaining as the strongest power in the Nile Basin,Egypt has attained a position of hydro-hegemony in the basin and maintained the water allocation regime that best served its national interests. However,power of the upstream countries has been rising since the end of the 20th century,challenging this regime. The upstream countries have begun to conduct their own water exploitation projects,which has changed the picture of water exploitation in the basin.At the same time,the downstream countries diverge greatly from the upstream countries on the water utilization issue,which has become more obvious. While the downstream riparians insist that their acquired rights to the Nile water are unnegotiable,the upstream ones assert that all the riparians have equal rights to it. This dispute impedes progress on the comprehensive legal regime of the basin. Due to the lack of such a regime,the riparians tend to exploit water resources in their territories unilaterally.The Nile Basin is facing more uncertainty due to rising demands for water and unilateral water exploitation projects.
引文
(1)M.Zeitoun and J.Warner,“Hydro-hegemony-A Framework for Analysis of Trans-boundary Water Conflicts,”Water Policy,Vol.8,No.5,2006,p.436.
(2)Robert O.Collins,The Nile,NewHaven and London:Yale University Press,2002,p.140.
(1)Patrick Lumumba,“The Interpretation of the 1929 Treaty and Its Legal Relevance and Implications for the Stability of the Region,”African Sociological Review,Vol.11,No.1,2007,p.13.
(2)Arthur Okoth-owiro,The Nile Treaty-State Succession and International Treaty Commitments:A Case Study of The Nile Water Treaties,Nairobi:Konrad Adenauer Stiftung and Lawand Policy Research Foundation,2004,p.8.
(3)Patrick Lumumba,“The Interpretation of the 1929 Treaty and Its Legal Relevance and Implications for the Stability of the Region,”p.13.
(4)Harry Verhoeven,Water,Civilisation and Power in Sudan-The Political Economy of Military-Islamist State Building,NewYork:Cambridge University Press,2015,p.68
(1)Ashok Swain,“Ethiopia,the Sudan,and Egypt:The Nile River Dispute,”Journal of Modern African Studies,Vol.35,No.4,1997,p.679.
(2)Ibid.
(3)Ibid.
(4)M.Zeitoun and J.Warner,“Hydro-hegemony-a Framework for Analysis of Trans-boundary Water Conflicts,”p.436.
(1)M.Zeitoun and J.Warner,“Hydro-hegemony-a Framework for Analysis of Trans-boundary Water Conflicts,”p.442.
(2)Ibid.
(3)Ana E.Cascao,“Changing Power Relations in the Nile River Basin:Unilateralism vs.Cooperation?”Water Alternatives,Vol.2,No.2,2009,p.248.
(4)Ibid.
(1)Majeed A.Rahman,“Water Security:Ethiopia-Egypt Transboundary Challenges over the Nile River Basin,”Journal of Asian and African Studies,Vol.48,No.1,2012,p.39.
(2)Ana E.Cascao,“Changing Power Relations in the Nile River Basin:Unilateralism vs.Cooperation?”,p.249.
(3)Ashok Swain,“Challenges for Water Sharing in the Nile Basin:Changing Geo-politics and Changing Climate,”p.693.
(4)“Egypt's Food Problem In A Nutshell,”Business Insider,January 31,2011,http://www.businessinsider.com/egypts-food-problem-in-a-nutshell-2011-1,登录时间:2018年4月21日。
(1)Ashok Swain,“Challenges for Water Sharing in the Nile Basin:Changing Geo-politics and Changing Climate,”p.692.
(1)Ashok Swain,“Challenges for Water Sharing in the Nile Basin:Changing Geo-politics and Changing Climate,”p.693.
(2)Ibid.,p.696.
(3)Ibid.
(4)Fred H.Lawson,“Egypt,Ethiopia,and the Nile River:The Continuing Dispute,”Mediterranean Quarterly,Vol.27,No.1,2016,p.103.
(1)“The Story of Ethiopia's Incredible Economic Rise,”Quartz Africa,October 26,2017,https://qz.com/1109739/ethiopia-is-one-of-the-fastest-growing-economies-in-the-world/,登录时间:2018年4月30日。
(2)Ashok Swain,“Challenges for Water Sharing in the Nile Basin:Changing Geo-politics and Changing Climate,”p.694.
(3)Andrew Carlson,“Who Owns the Nile?Egypt,Sudan,and Ethiopia's History-Changing Dam,”Origins,Vol.6,No.6,M arch 2013,http://origins.osu.edu/article/who-owns-nile-egypt-sudan-and-ethiopia-s-historychanging-dam,登录时间:2018年3月17日。
(1)Ashok Swain,“Challenges for Water Sharing in the Nile Basin:Changing Geo-politics and Changing Climate,”p.695.
(2)“Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam,”Wikipedia,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Ethiopian_Renaissance_Dam,登录时间:2019年2月14日。
(3)Fred H.Lawson,“Egypt,Ethiopia,and the Nile River:The Continuing Dispute,”p.104.
(1)“Egypt,Ethiopia to ReviewImpact of Mega Dam,”Reuters,September 17,2011,http://www.trust.org/item/20110917142000-tqnhe,登录时间:2018年4月30日。
(2)“Wikileaks Reports Say Egypt Was Planning to Bomb the Ethiopian Grand Renaissance Dam,”Tigrai Online,September 4,2012,http://www.tigraionline.com/articles/article120911.html,登录时间:2019年2月14日。
(3)Doaa El-Bey,“More Meetings,No Outcome,”Al-Ahram Weekly,July 9-22,2015,http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/12776.aspx,登录时间:2018年5月5日。
(4)“No One Can Touch Egypt's Share of Nile Waters:Sisi,”Egypt Independent,November 18,2017,https://ww.egyptindependent.com/no-one-can-touch-egypts-share-of-nile-waters-sisi/,登录时间:2019年2月14日。
(1)Ana E.Cascao,“Changing Power Relations in the Nile River Basin:Unilateralism vs.Cooperation?”p.257.
(1)《苏丹:埃塞俄比亚大坝把我们的尼罗河水份额还给我们》(阿拉伯文),半岛网,2017年11月21日,http://www.aljazeera.net/news/arabic/2017/11/21/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7-%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7-%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%84,登录时间:2018年5月5日。
(2)“Egypt Wants‘Sudan Out’of Contentious Dam Talks,”Aljazeera,January 2,2018,https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/01/egypt-sudan-contentious-dam-talks-180102123313038.html,登录时间:2019年2月15日。
(3)“Sudan Recalls Its Ambassador from Egypt Amid Tensions,”Reuters,January 5,2018,https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sudan-egypt/sudan-recalls-its-ambassador-to-egypt-for-talks-foreign-ministry-idUSKBN1ET29P,登录时间:2019年2月15日。
(2)Robert O.Collins,The Nile,NewHaven and London:Yale University Press,2002,p.140.
(1)Patrick Lumumba,“The Interpretation of the 1929 Treaty and Its Legal Relevance and Implications for the Stability of the Region,”African Sociological Review,Vol.11,No.1,2007,p.13.
(2)Arthur Okoth-owiro,The Nile Treaty-State Succession and International Treaty Commitments:A Case Study of The Nile Water Treaties,Nairobi:Konrad Adenauer Stiftung and Lawand Policy Research Foundation,2004,p.8.
(3)Patrick Lumumba,“The Interpretation of the 1929 Treaty and Its Legal Relevance and Implications for the Stability of the Region,”p.13.
(4)Harry Verhoeven,Water,Civilisation and Power in Sudan-The Political Economy of Military-Islamist State Building,NewYork:Cambridge University Press,2015,p.68
(1)Ashok Swain,“Ethiopia,the Sudan,and Egypt:The Nile River Dispute,”Journal of Modern African Studies,Vol.35,No.4,1997,p.679.
(2)Ibid.
(3)Ibid.
(4)M.Zeitoun and J.Warner,“Hydro-hegemony-a Framework for Analysis of Trans-boundary Water Conflicts,”p.436.
(1)M.Zeitoun and J.Warner,“Hydro-hegemony-a Framework for Analysis of Trans-boundary Water Conflicts,”p.442.
(2)Ibid.
(3)Ana E.Cascao,“Changing Power Relations in the Nile River Basin:Unilateralism vs.Cooperation?”Water Alternatives,Vol.2,No.2,2009,p.248.
(4)Ibid.
(1)Majeed A.Rahman,“Water Security:Ethiopia-Egypt Transboundary Challenges over the Nile River Basin,”Journal of Asian and African Studies,Vol.48,No.1,2012,p.39.
(2)Ana E.Cascao,“Changing Power Relations in the Nile River Basin:Unilateralism vs.Cooperation?”,p.249.
(3)Ashok Swain,“Challenges for Water Sharing in the Nile Basin:Changing Geo-politics and Changing Climate,”p.693.
(4)“Egypt's Food Problem In A Nutshell,”Business Insider,January 31,2011,http://www.businessinsider.com/egypts-food-problem-in-a-nutshell-2011-1,登录时间:2018年4月21日。
(1)Ashok Swain,“Challenges for Water Sharing in the Nile Basin:Changing Geo-politics and Changing Climate,”p.692.
(1)Ashok Swain,“Challenges for Water Sharing in the Nile Basin:Changing Geo-politics and Changing Climate,”p.693.
(2)Ibid.,p.696.
(3)Ibid.
(4)Fred H.Lawson,“Egypt,Ethiopia,and the Nile River:The Continuing Dispute,”Mediterranean Quarterly,Vol.27,No.1,2016,p.103.
(1)“The Story of Ethiopia's Incredible Economic Rise,”Quartz Africa,October 26,2017,https://qz.com/1109739/ethiopia-is-one-of-the-fastest-growing-economies-in-the-world/,登录时间:2018年4月30日。
(2)Ashok Swain,“Challenges for Water Sharing in the Nile Basin:Changing Geo-politics and Changing Climate,”p.694.
(3)Andrew Carlson,“Who Owns the Nile?Egypt,Sudan,and Ethiopia's History-Changing Dam,”Origins,Vol.6,No.6,M arch 2013,http://origins.osu.edu/article/who-owns-nile-egypt-sudan-and-ethiopia-s-historychanging-dam,登录时间:2018年3月17日。
(1)Ashok Swain,“Challenges for Water Sharing in the Nile Basin:Changing Geo-politics and Changing Climate,”p.695.
(2)“Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam,”Wikipedia,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Ethiopian_Renaissance_Dam,登录时间:2019年2月14日。
(3)Fred H.Lawson,“Egypt,Ethiopia,and the Nile River:The Continuing Dispute,”p.104.
(1)“Egypt,Ethiopia to ReviewImpact of Mega Dam,”Reuters,September 17,2011,http://www.trust.org/item/20110917142000-tqnhe,登录时间:2018年4月30日。
(2)“Wikileaks Reports Say Egypt Was Planning to Bomb the Ethiopian Grand Renaissance Dam,”Tigrai Online,September 4,2012,http://www.tigraionline.com/articles/article120911.html,登录时间:2019年2月14日。
(3)Doaa El-Bey,“More Meetings,No Outcome,”Al-Ahram Weekly,July 9-22,2015,http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/12776.aspx,登录时间:2018年5月5日。
(4)“No One Can Touch Egypt's Share of Nile Waters:Sisi,”Egypt Independent,November 18,2017,https://ww.egyptindependent.com/no-one-can-touch-egypts-share-of-nile-waters-sisi/,登录时间:2019年2月14日。
(1)Ana E.Cascao,“Changing Power Relations in the Nile River Basin:Unilateralism vs.Cooperation?”p.257.
(1)《苏丹:埃塞俄比亚大坝把我们的尼罗河水份额还给我们》(阿拉伯文),半岛网,2017年11月21日,http://www.aljazeera.net/news/arabic/2017/11/21/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7-%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7-%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%84,登录时间:2018年5月5日。
(2)“Egypt Wants‘Sudan Out’of Contentious Dam Talks,”Aljazeera,January 2,2018,https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/01/egypt-sudan-contentious-dam-talks-180102123313038.html,登录时间:2019年2月15日。
(3)“Sudan Recalls Its Ambassador from Egypt Amid Tensions,”Reuters,January 5,2018,https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sudan-egypt/sudan-recalls-its-ambassador-to-egypt-for-talks-foreign-ministry-idUSKBN1ET29P,登录时间:2019年2月15日。