Description of Soil Evolution in Southern Mashhad City Using Jenny's and Johnson and Watson-Stegner's Conceptual Models
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摘要
Conceptual models are suitable for describing internal relationships of complex systems, including soil. We used conceptual models,the Jenny's and Johnson and Watson-Stegner's models to understand the formation and evolution of soil. We studied 20 pedons in granitic hilly lands, loessial piedmont, and piedmont plain in southern Mashhad, northeast Iran. These soils were characterized by high levels of gypsum, especially in the granitic saprolites, which suggested the importance of the wind in shaping the soil structure.Jenny's model is a developmental and equilibrium model, which only describes the state of the soil formation factors and considers that each bioclimatic zone has a specific climax soil. It focuses on the genesis of the surface soil and is not suitable for buried soils and paleosols. Johnson and Watson-Stegner's model describes soil as a product of progressive and regressive processes due to horizonation or haploidization. Progressive processes during the last interglacial cycle created a well-developed paleosol with an argillic horizon in all landforms, except the piedmont plain. Developmental soil up-building by aeolian addition led to gypsum enrichment of the granitic saprolite. Erosion decreased soil thickness and exposed the argillic horizon. The Last Glacial Maximum led to greater deposition of loess, covering the paleosol. Humidity was higher during the early Holocene than today, leading to the development of a Bk horizon.This horizon was preserved in the stable surfaces of granitic hilly land and in the loessial piedmont, but buried on the piedmont plain via the deposition of alluvial sediments. Jenny's model could be used for current soil formation factors, whereas Johnson and Watson-Stegner's model required morphological characteristics of pedons for interpretation.
Conceptual models are suitable for describing internal relationships of complex systems, including soil. We used conceptual models,the Jenny's and Johnson and Watson-Stegner's models to understand the formation and evolution of soil. We studied 20 pedons in granitic hilly lands, loessial piedmont, and piedmont plain in southern Mashhad, northeast Iran. These soils were characterized by high levels of gypsum, especially in the granitic saprolites, which suggested the importance of the wind in shaping the soil structure.Jenny's model is a developmental and equilibrium model, which only describes the state of the soil formation factors and considers that each bioclimatic zone has a specific climax soil. It focuses on the genesis of the surface soil and is not suitable for buried soils and paleosols. Johnson and Watson-Stegner's model describes soil as a product of progressive and regressive processes due to horizonation or haploidization. Progressive processes during the last interglacial cycle created a well-developed paleosol with an argillic horizon in all landforms, except the piedmont plain. Developmental soil up-building by aeolian addition led to gypsum enrichment of the granitic saprolite. Erosion decreased soil thickness and exposed the argillic horizon. The Last Glacial Maximum led to greater deposition of loess, covering the paleosol. Humidity was higher during the early Holocene than today, leading to the development of a Bk horizon.This horizon was preserved in the stable surfaces of granitic hilly land and in the loessial piedmont, but buried on the piedmont plain via the deposition of alluvial sediments. Jenny's model could be used for current soil formation factors, whereas Johnson and Watson-Stegner's model required morphological characteristics of pedons for interpretation.
Conceptual models are suitable for describing internal relationships of complex systems, including soil. We used conceptual models,the Jenny's and Johnson and Watson-Stegner's models to understand the formation and evolution of soil. We studied 20 pedons in granitic hilly lands, loessial piedmont, and piedmont plain in southern Mashhad, northeast Iran. These soils were characterized by high levels of gypsum, especially in the granitic saprolites, which suggested the importance of the wind in shaping the soil structure.Jenny's model is a developmental and equilibrium model, which only describes the state of the soil formation factors and considers that each bioclimatic zone has a specific climax soil. It focuses on the genesis of the surface soil and is not suitable for buried soils and paleosols. Johnson and Watson-Stegner's model describes soil as a product of progressive and regressive processes due to horizonation or haploidization. Progressive processes during the last interglacial cycle created a well-developed paleosol with an argillic horizon in all landforms, except the piedmont plain. Developmental soil up-building by aeolian addition led to gypsum enrichment of the granitic saprolite. Erosion decreased soil thickness and exposed the argillic horizon. The Last Glacial Maximum led to greater deposition of loess, covering the paleosol. Humidity was higher during the early Holocene than today, leading to the development of a Bk horizon.This horizon was preserved in the stable surfaces of granitic hilly land and in the loessial piedmont, but buried on the piedmont plain via the deposition of alluvial sediments. Jenny's model could be used for current soil formation factors, whereas Johnson and Watson-Stegner's model required morphological characteristics of pedons for interpretation.
引文
Arkley R J.1963.Calculation of carbonate and water movement in soil from climatic data.Soil Sci.96:239-248.
Bayat O,Karouyeh A K,Khademi H,Kehl M.2014.Paleoecological changes in the Northeastern Iran,signals from carbon isotopic composition of pedogenic carbonates in loess derived soils.In International Symposium on Loess,Soils and Climate Change in Southern Eurasia.Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources,Gorgan.pp.55.
Birkeland P W.1999.Soils and Geomorphology.3rd Edn.Oxford University Press,New York.
Bockheim J G,Gennadiyev A N.2010.Soil-factorial models and earth-system science:A review.Geoderma.159:243-251.
Buggle B,Hambach U,Glaser B,Gerasimenko N,Markovi′c S B,Glaser I,Zller L.2009.Stratigraphy,and spatial and temporal paleoclimatic trends in Southeastern/Eastern European loess-paleosol sequences.Quatern Int.196:86-106.
Burt R.2004.Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual.Soil Survey Investigations Report No.42.Version 4.0.US Department of Agriculture,Natural Resources Conservation Service,Washington,D.C.
Davoodi M,Mohammadi H,Bay N.2010.Analysis and forecasting some climatic element of Mashhad.Nivar(in Persian).70-71:35-36.
Dijkerman J C.1974.Pedology as a science:The role of data,models and theories in the study of natural soil systems.Geoderma.11:73-93.
Ding Z L,Ranov V,Yang S L,Finaev A,Han J M,Wang G A.2002.The loess record in southern Tajikistan and correlation with Chinese loess.Earth Planet Sci Lett.200:387-400.
Farpoor M H,Khademi H,Eghbal M K,Krouse R H.2004.Mode of gypsum deposition in southeastern Iranian soils as revealed by isotopic composition of crystallization water.Geoderma.121:233-242.
Ghasemzadeh Ganjehie M.2004.Land Suitability Evaluation for Irrigated Wheat and Sugar Beet in Chenatran Area(in Persian).Technical Report No.1177.Soil and Water Research Institute,Tehran.
Goudie A.1983.Calcrete.In Goudie A S,Pye K(eds.)Chemical Sediments and Geomorphology:Precipitates and Residua in the Near-Surface Environment.Academic Press,London.pp.93-131.
Hao Q Z,Oldfield F,Bloemendal J,Guo Z T.2008.The magnetic properties of loess and paleosol samples from the Chinese Loess Plateau spanning the last 22 million years.Palaeogeogr Palaeoecol.260:389-404.
Hawley J W,Parsons R B,1980.Glossary of Selected Geomorphic and Geologic Terms.US Department of AgricultureSoil Conservation Service Western Thecnical Service Center,Portland,Oregon.
Hoosbeek M R,Bryant R B.1992.Towards the quantitative modeling of pedogenesis-A review.Geoderma.55:183-210.
Hudson B D.1992.The soil survey as paradigm-based science.Soil Sci Soc Am J.56:836-841.
Jacob J S,Nordt L C.1991.Soil and landscape evolution:Aparadigm for pedology.Soil Sci Soc Am J.55:1194-1194.
Jenny H.1941.Factors of Soil Formation.Mc Graw-Hill,New York.
Jenny H.1961.Derivation of state factor equations of soils and ecosystems.Soil Sci Soc Am Proc.25:385-388.
Johnson D L,Keller E A,Rockwell T K.1990.Dynamic pedogenesis:New views on some key soil concepts,and a model for interpreting Quaternary soils.Quaernary Res.33:306-319.
Johnson D L,Watson-Stegner D.1987.Evolution model of pedogenesis.Soil Sci.143:349-366.
Johnson D L.1985.Soil thickness processes.In Jungerius P(ed.)Soils and Geomorphology.Catena Supplement.Vol.6.Catena Verlag,Braunschweig.pp.29-40.
Karimi A,Frechen M,Khademi H,Kehl M,Jalalian A.2011.Chronostratigraphy of loess deposits in northeast Iran.Qutaern Int.234:124-132.
Karimi A,Khademi H,Kehl M,Jalalian A.2009.Distribution,lithology and provenance of peridesert loess deposits in northeastern Iran.Geoderma.148:241-250.
Karimpour M H,Farmer L,Ashouri C,Saadat S.2006.Major,trace and REE geochemistry of paleo-Tethys collision-related granitoids from Mashhad,Iran.J Sci I R Iran.17:127-145.
Khademi H,Mermut A R.1999.Submicroscopy and stable isotope geochemistry of carbonates and associated palygorskite in Iranian Aridisols.Eur J Soil Sci.50:207-216.
Khormali F,Kehl M.2011.Micromorphology and development of loess-derived surface and buried soils along a precipitation gradient in Northern Iran.Qutaern Int.234:109-123.
Minasny B,Mc Bratney A B,Salvador-Blanes S.2008.Quantitative models for pedogenesis-A review.Geoderma.144:140-157.
Nettleton W D,Olson C G,Wysocki D A.2000.Paleosol classification:Problems and solutions.Catena.41:61-92.
Phillips J D.1993.Stability implications of the state factor model of soils as a nonlinear dynamical system.Geoderma.58:1-15.
Prieto B,Silva B.2003.Neoformed calcium minerals in granitic colonized by lichens.Nova Acta Cientifica Compostelana(Bioloxia).13:35-45.
Pustovoytov K,Schmidt K,Taubald H.2007.Evidence for Holocene environmental changes in the northern Fertile Crescent provided by pedogenic carbonate coatings.Quat Res.67:315-327.
Retallack G J.1992.Paleosols and changes in climate and vegetation across the Eocene/Oligocene boundary.In Prothero D R,Berggren W R(eds.)Eocene-Oligocene Climatic and Biotic Evolution.Princeton University Press,Princeton.pp.382-398.
Ruhe R V.1975.Geomorphology:Geomorphic Processes and Surficial Geology.Houghton Mifflin,Boston.
Runge E C A.1973.Soil development sequences and energy models.Soil Sci.115:183-193.
Sahebjam A A.2002.Final Report Of Detailed Soil Survey of Torogh Agricultural Research Site,Khorasan Razavi Province(in Persian).Technical Report No.1146.Soil and Water Research Institute,Tehran.
Sahebjam A A.2007.Land Suitability Evaluation for Wheat,Barley and Alfalfa in Quchan Area(in Persian).Technical Report No.1286.Soil and Water Research Institute,Tehran.
Sayago J M,Collantes M M,Karlson A,Sanabria J.2009.Genesis and distribution of the Late Pleistocene and Holocene loess of Argentina:A regional approximation.Quatern Int.76-77:247-257.
Schaetzl R J,Attig J W.2013.The loess cover of northeastern Wisconsin.Quat Res.79:199-214.
Schaetzl R J,Thompson M L.2015.Soils:Genesis and Geomorphology.2nd Edn.Cambridge University Press,New York.
Schoeneberger P J,Wysocki D A,Benham E C.Broderson WD.2002.Field book for Describing and Sampling Soils,Version 2.0.Natural Resources Conservation Service,National Soil Survey Center,Lincoln.
Simonson R W.1959.Outline of a generalized theory of soil genesis.Soil Sci Soc Am Proc.23:152-156.
Smeck N E,Runge E C A,Mac Kintosh E E.1983.Dynamics and genetic modelling of soil systems.In Wilding L P,Smeck N E,Hall G F(eds.)Pedogenesis and Soil Taxonomy I.Concepts and Interactions.Elsevier,New York.pp.51-81.
Soil Survey Staff.2014.Keys to Soil Taxonomy.12th Edn.USDA-NRCS,Washington D.C.
Sun J M,Ding Z L.1998.Deposits and soils of the past 130 000years at the desert-loess transition in Northern China.Quat Res.50:148-156.
Targulian V O,Krasilnikov P V.2007.Soil system and pedogenic processes:Self-organization,time scales,and environmental significance.Catena.71:373-381.
Wright J S.2007.An overview of the role of weathering in the production of quartz silt.Sediment Geol.202:337-351.
Wright V P,Tucker M E.1991.Calcretes:An introduction.In Wright V P,Tucker M E(eds.)Calcretes.Blackwell Scientific,Oxford.pp.1-22.
Bayat O,Karouyeh A K,Khademi H,Kehl M.2014.Paleoecological changes in the Northeastern Iran,signals from carbon isotopic composition of pedogenic carbonates in loess derived soils.In International Symposium on Loess,Soils and Climate Change in Southern Eurasia.Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources,Gorgan.pp.55.
Birkeland P W.1999.Soils and Geomorphology.3rd Edn.Oxford University Press,New York.
Bockheim J G,Gennadiyev A N.2010.Soil-factorial models and earth-system science:A review.Geoderma.159:243-251.
Buggle B,Hambach U,Glaser B,Gerasimenko N,Markovi′c S B,Glaser I,Zller L.2009.Stratigraphy,and spatial and temporal paleoclimatic trends in Southeastern/Eastern European loess-paleosol sequences.Quatern Int.196:86-106.
Burt R.2004.Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual.Soil Survey Investigations Report No.42.Version 4.0.US Department of Agriculture,Natural Resources Conservation Service,Washington,D.C.
Davoodi M,Mohammadi H,Bay N.2010.Analysis and forecasting some climatic element of Mashhad.Nivar(in Persian).70-71:35-36.
Dijkerman J C.1974.Pedology as a science:The role of data,models and theories in the study of natural soil systems.Geoderma.11:73-93.
Ding Z L,Ranov V,Yang S L,Finaev A,Han J M,Wang G A.2002.The loess record in southern Tajikistan and correlation with Chinese loess.Earth Planet Sci Lett.200:387-400.
Farpoor M H,Khademi H,Eghbal M K,Krouse R H.2004.Mode of gypsum deposition in southeastern Iranian soils as revealed by isotopic composition of crystallization water.Geoderma.121:233-242.
Ghasemzadeh Ganjehie M.2004.Land Suitability Evaluation for Irrigated Wheat and Sugar Beet in Chenatran Area(in Persian).Technical Report No.1177.Soil and Water Research Institute,Tehran.
Goudie A.1983.Calcrete.In Goudie A S,Pye K(eds.)Chemical Sediments and Geomorphology:Precipitates and Residua in the Near-Surface Environment.Academic Press,London.pp.93-131.
Hao Q Z,Oldfield F,Bloemendal J,Guo Z T.2008.The magnetic properties of loess and paleosol samples from the Chinese Loess Plateau spanning the last 22 million years.Palaeogeogr Palaeoecol.260:389-404.
Hawley J W,Parsons R B,1980.Glossary of Selected Geomorphic and Geologic Terms.US Department of AgricultureSoil Conservation Service Western Thecnical Service Center,Portland,Oregon.
Hoosbeek M R,Bryant R B.1992.Towards the quantitative modeling of pedogenesis-A review.Geoderma.55:183-210.
Hudson B D.1992.The soil survey as paradigm-based science.Soil Sci Soc Am J.56:836-841.
Jacob J S,Nordt L C.1991.Soil and landscape evolution:Aparadigm for pedology.Soil Sci Soc Am J.55:1194-1194.
Jenny H.1941.Factors of Soil Formation.Mc Graw-Hill,New York.
Jenny H.1961.Derivation of state factor equations of soils and ecosystems.Soil Sci Soc Am Proc.25:385-388.
Johnson D L,Keller E A,Rockwell T K.1990.Dynamic pedogenesis:New views on some key soil concepts,and a model for interpreting Quaternary soils.Quaernary Res.33:306-319.
Johnson D L,Watson-Stegner D.1987.Evolution model of pedogenesis.Soil Sci.143:349-366.
Johnson D L.1985.Soil thickness processes.In Jungerius P(ed.)Soils and Geomorphology.Catena Supplement.Vol.6.Catena Verlag,Braunschweig.pp.29-40.
Karimi A,Frechen M,Khademi H,Kehl M,Jalalian A.2011.Chronostratigraphy of loess deposits in northeast Iran.Qutaern Int.234:124-132.
Karimi A,Khademi H,Kehl M,Jalalian A.2009.Distribution,lithology and provenance of peridesert loess deposits in northeastern Iran.Geoderma.148:241-250.
Karimpour M H,Farmer L,Ashouri C,Saadat S.2006.Major,trace and REE geochemistry of paleo-Tethys collision-related granitoids from Mashhad,Iran.J Sci I R Iran.17:127-145.
Khademi H,Mermut A R.1999.Submicroscopy and stable isotope geochemistry of carbonates and associated palygorskite in Iranian Aridisols.Eur J Soil Sci.50:207-216.
Khormali F,Kehl M.2011.Micromorphology and development of loess-derived surface and buried soils along a precipitation gradient in Northern Iran.Qutaern Int.234:109-123.
Minasny B,Mc Bratney A B,Salvador-Blanes S.2008.Quantitative models for pedogenesis-A review.Geoderma.144:140-157.
Nettleton W D,Olson C G,Wysocki D A.2000.Paleosol classification:Problems and solutions.Catena.41:61-92.
Phillips J D.1993.Stability implications of the state factor model of soils as a nonlinear dynamical system.Geoderma.58:1-15.
Prieto B,Silva B.2003.Neoformed calcium minerals in granitic colonized by lichens.Nova Acta Cientifica Compostelana(Bioloxia).13:35-45.
Pustovoytov K,Schmidt K,Taubald H.2007.Evidence for Holocene environmental changes in the northern Fertile Crescent provided by pedogenic carbonate coatings.Quat Res.67:315-327.
Retallack G J.1992.Paleosols and changes in climate and vegetation across the Eocene/Oligocene boundary.In Prothero D R,Berggren W R(eds.)Eocene-Oligocene Climatic and Biotic Evolution.Princeton University Press,Princeton.pp.382-398.
Ruhe R V.1975.Geomorphology:Geomorphic Processes and Surficial Geology.Houghton Mifflin,Boston.
Runge E C A.1973.Soil development sequences and energy models.Soil Sci.115:183-193.
Sahebjam A A.2002.Final Report Of Detailed Soil Survey of Torogh Agricultural Research Site,Khorasan Razavi Province(in Persian).Technical Report No.1146.Soil and Water Research Institute,Tehran.
Sahebjam A A.2007.Land Suitability Evaluation for Wheat,Barley and Alfalfa in Quchan Area(in Persian).Technical Report No.1286.Soil and Water Research Institute,Tehran.
Sayago J M,Collantes M M,Karlson A,Sanabria J.2009.Genesis and distribution of the Late Pleistocene and Holocene loess of Argentina:A regional approximation.Quatern Int.76-77:247-257.
Schaetzl R J,Attig J W.2013.The loess cover of northeastern Wisconsin.Quat Res.79:199-214.
Schaetzl R J,Thompson M L.2015.Soils:Genesis and Geomorphology.2nd Edn.Cambridge University Press,New York.
Schoeneberger P J,Wysocki D A,Benham E C.Broderson WD.2002.Field book for Describing and Sampling Soils,Version 2.0.Natural Resources Conservation Service,National Soil Survey Center,Lincoln.
Simonson R W.1959.Outline of a generalized theory of soil genesis.Soil Sci Soc Am Proc.23:152-156.
Smeck N E,Runge E C A,Mac Kintosh E E.1983.Dynamics and genetic modelling of soil systems.In Wilding L P,Smeck N E,Hall G F(eds.)Pedogenesis and Soil Taxonomy I.Concepts and Interactions.Elsevier,New York.pp.51-81.
Soil Survey Staff.2014.Keys to Soil Taxonomy.12th Edn.USDA-NRCS,Washington D.C.
Sun J M,Ding Z L.1998.Deposits and soils of the past 130 000years at the desert-loess transition in Northern China.Quat Res.50:148-156.
Targulian V O,Krasilnikov P V.2007.Soil system and pedogenic processes:Self-organization,time scales,and environmental significance.Catena.71:373-381.
Wright J S.2007.An overview of the role of weathering in the production of quartz silt.Sediment Geol.202:337-351.
Wright V P,Tucker M E.1991.Calcretes:An introduction.In Wright V P,Tucker M E(eds.)Calcretes.Blackwell Scientific,Oxford.pp.1-22.