The use of hydrogeochemical analyses and multivariate statistics for the characterization of thermal springs in the Constantine area, Northeastern Algeria
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摘要
This paper deals with the results of a hydrogeochemistry study on the thermal waters of the Constantine area, Northeastern Algeria, using geochemical and statistical tools. The samples were collected in December2016 from twelve hot springs and were analyzed for physicochemical parameters(electric conductivity, p H,total dissolved solids, temperature, Ca, Mg, Na, K, HCO_3,Cl, SO_4, and SiO_2). The waters of the thermal springs have temperatures varying from 28 to 51 °C and electric conductivity values ranging from 853 to 5630 l S/cm. Q-mode Cluster analysis resulted in the determination of two major water types: a Ca–HCO_3–SO_4 type with a moderate salinity and a Na–K–Cl type with high salinity. The plot of the major ions versus the saturation indices suggested that the hydrogeochemistry of thermal groundwater is mainly controlled by dissolution/precipitation of carbonate minerals, dissolution of evaporite minerals(halite and gypsum), and ion exchange of Ca(and/or Mg) by Na. The Gibbs diagram shows that evaporation is another factor playing a minor role. Principal Component Analysis produced three significant factors which have 88.2% of totalvariance that illustrate the main processes controlling the chemistry of groundwaters, which are respectively: the dissolution of evaporite minerals(halite and gypsum), ion exchange, and dissolution/precipitation of carbonate minerals. The subsurface reservoir temperatures were calculated using different cation and silica geothermometers and gave temperatures ranging between 17 and 279 °C. The Na–K and Na–K-Ca geothermometers provided high temperatures(up to 279 °C), whereas, estimated geotemperatures from K/Mg geothermometers were the lowest(17–53 °C). Silica geothermometers gave the most reasonable temperature estimate of the subsurface waters overlap between 20 and 58 °C, which indicate possible mixing with cooler Mg groundwaters indicated by the Na–K–Mg plot in the immature water field and in silica and chloride mixing models. The results of stable isotope analyses(δ~(18) O and δ~2 H) suggest that the origin of thermal water recharge is precipitation, which recharged from a higher altitude(600–1200 m) and infiltrated through deep faults and fractures in carbonate formations. They circulate at an estimated depth that does not exceed 2 km and are heated by a high conductive heat flow before rising to the surface through faults that acted as hydrothermal conduits.During their ascent to the surface, they are subjected to various physical and chemical changes such as cooling by conduction and change in their chemical constituents due to the mixing with cold groundwaters.
This paper deals with the results of a hydrogeochemistry study on the thermal waters of the Constantine area, Northeastern Algeria, using geochemical and statistical tools. The samples were collected in December2016 from twelve hot springs and were analyzed for physicochemical parameters(electric conductivity, p H,total dissolved solids, temperature, Ca, Mg, Na, K, HCO_3,Cl, SO_4, and SiO_2). The waters of the thermal springs have temperatures varying from 28 to 51 °C and electric conductivity values ranging from 853 to 5630 l S/cm. Q-mode Cluster analysis resulted in the determination of two major water types: a Ca–HCO_3–SO_4 type with a moderate salinity and a Na–K–Cl type with high salinity. The plot of the major ions versus the saturation indices suggested that the hydrogeochemistry of thermal groundwater is mainly controlled by dissolution/precipitation of carbonate minerals, dissolution of evaporite minerals(halite and gypsum), and ion exchange of Ca(and/or Mg) by Na. The Gibbs diagram shows that evaporation is another factor playing a minor role. Principal Component Analysis produced three significant factors which have 88.2% of totalvariance that illustrate the main processes controlling the chemistry of groundwaters, which are respectively: the dissolution of evaporite minerals(halite and gypsum), ion exchange, and dissolution/precipitation of carbonate minerals. The subsurface reservoir temperatures were calculated using different cation and silica geothermometers and gave temperatures ranging between 17 and 279 °C. The Na–K and Na–K-Ca geothermometers provided high temperatures(up to 279 °C), whereas, estimated geotemperatures from K/Mg geothermometers were the lowest(17–53 °C). Silica geothermometers gave the most reasonable temperature estimate of the subsurface waters overlap between 20 and 58 °C, which indicate possible mixing with cooler Mg groundwaters indicated by the Na–K–Mg plot in the immature water field and in silica and chloride mixing models. The results of stable isotope analyses(δ~(18) O and δ~2 H) suggest that the origin of thermal water recharge is precipitation, which recharged from a higher altitude(600–1200 m) and infiltrated through deep faults and fractures in carbonate formations. They circulate at an estimated depth that does not exceed 2 km and are heated by a high conductive heat flow before rising to the surface through faults that acted as hydrothermal conduits.During their ascent to the surface, they are subjected to various physical and chemical changes such as cooling by conduction and change in their chemical constituents due to the mixing with cold groundwaters.
This paper deals with the results of a hydrogeochemistry study on the thermal waters of the Constantine area, Northeastern Algeria, using geochemical and statistical tools. The samples were collected in December2016 from twelve hot springs and were analyzed for physicochemical parameters(electric conductivity, p H,total dissolved solids, temperature, Ca, Mg, Na, K, HCO_3,Cl, SO_4, and SiO_2). The waters of the thermal springs have temperatures varying from 28 to 51 °C and electric conductivity values ranging from 853 to 5630 l S/cm. Q-mode Cluster analysis resulted in the determination of two major water types: a Ca–HCO_3–SO_4 type with a moderate salinity and a Na–K–Cl type with high salinity. The plot of the major ions versus the saturation indices suggested that the hydrogeochemistry of thermal groundwater is mainly controlled by dissolution/precipitation of carbonate minerals, dissolution of evaporite minerals(halite and gypsum), and ion exchange of Ca(and/or Mg) by Na. The Gibbs diagram shows that evaporation is another factor playing a minor role. Principal Component Analysis produced three significant factors which have 88.2% of totalvariance that illustrate the main processes controlling the chemistry of groundwaters, which are respectively: the dissolution of evaporite minerals(halite and gypsum), ion exchange, and dissolution/precipitation of carbonate minerals. The subsurface reservoir temperatures were calculated using different cation and silica geothermometers and gave temperatures ranging between 17 and 279 °C. The Na–K and Na–K-Ca geothermometers provided high temperatures(up to 279 °C), whereas, estimated geotemperatures from K/Mg geothermometers were the lowest(17–53 °C). Silica geothermometers gave the most reasonable temperature estimate of the subsurface waters overlap between 20 and 58 °C, which indicate possible mixing with cooler Mg groundwaters indicated by the Na–K–Mg plot in the immature water field and in silica and chloride mixing models. The results of stable isotope analyses(δ~(18) O and δ~2 H) suggest that the origin of thermal water recharge is precipitation, which recharged from a higher altitude(600–1200 m) and infiltrated through deep faults and fractures in carbonate formations. They circulate at an estimated depth that does not exceed 2 km and are heated by a high conductive heat flow before rising to the surface through faults that acted as hydrothermal conduits.During their ascent to the surface, they are subjected to various physical and chemical changes such as cooling by conduction and change in their chemical constituents due to the mixing with cold groundwaters.
引文
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Aminu I,Hafizan J,Mohd-Ekhwan T,Adamu M,Azman A,Hamza A(2015)Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate statistical techniques in the Terengganu River Basin,Malaysian.J Anal Sci 19(2):338-348
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Barkaoui AE,Zarhloule Y,Rimi A,Verdoya M,Bouri S(2014)Hydrogeochemical investigations of thermal waters in the northeastern part of Morocco.Environ Earth Sci 71:1767-1780
Belhai M,Fujimitsu Y,Bouchareb-Haouchine FZ et al(2016)Ahydrochemical study of the Hammam Righa geothermal waters in north-central Algeria.Acta Geochim 35:271-287
Belhai M,Fujimitsu Y,Nishijima J,Bersi M(2017)Hydrochemistry and gas geochemistry of the northeastern Algerian geothermal waters.Arab J Geosci 10:8
Belkhiri L,Boudoukha A,Mouni L,Baouz T(2010)Application of multivariate statistical methods and inverse geochemical modeling for characterization of groundwater-a case study:Ain Azel plain(Algeria).Geoderma 159:390-398
Bencer S,Boudoukha A,Mouni L(2016)Multivariate statistical analysis of the groundwater of Ain Djacer area(Eastern of Algeria).Arab J Geosci 9:248
Blake S,Henry T,Murray J,Flood R,Muller MR,Jones AG,Volker Rath(2016)Compositional multivariate statistical analysis of thermal groundwater provenance:a hydrogeochemical case study from Ireland.Appl Geochem 75:171-188
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Foued B,He′nia D,Lazhar B et al(2017)Hydrogeochemistry and geothermometry of thermal springs from the Guelma region,Algeria.J Geol Soc India 90:226-232
Fournier RO(1977)Chemical geothermometers and mixing models for geothermal systems.Geothermics 5(41):50
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Fournier RO(1979b)A revised equation for Na/K geothermometer.Geotherm Resour Counc Trans 3:221-224
Fournier RO,Truesdell AH(1973)An empirical Na-K-Ca geothermometer for natural waters.Geochim Cosmochim Acta37:1255-1275
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Aminu I,Hafizan J,Mohd-Ekhwan T,Adamu M,Azman A,Hamza A(2015)Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate statistical techniques in the Terengganu River Basin,Malaysian.J Anal Sci 19(2):338-348
Appelo CAJ,Postma D(1996)Geochemistry,groundwater and pollution.Balkema,Rotterdam
Bahri F,Saibi H,Cherchali ME(2011)Characterization,classification,and determination of drinkability of some Algerian thermal waters.Arab J Geosci 4(1-2):207-219
Barkaoui AE,Zarhloule Y,Rimi A,Verdoya M,Bouri S(2014)Hydrogeochemical investigations of thermal waters in the northeastern part of Morocco.Environ Earth Sci 71:1767-1780
Belhai M,Fujimitsu Y,Bouchareb-Haouchine FZ et al(2016)Ahydrochemical study of the Hammam Righa geothermal waters in north-central Algeria.Acta Geochim 35:271-287
Belhai M,Fujimitsu Y,Nishijima J,Bersi M(2017)Hydrochemistry and gas geochemistry of the northeastern Algerian geothermal waters.Arab J Geosci 10:8
Belkhiri L,Boudoukha A,Mouni L,Baouz T(2010)Application of multivariate statistical methods and inverse geochemical modeling for characterization of groundwater-a case study:Ain Azel plain(Algeria).Geoderma 159:390-398
Bencer S,Boudoukha A,Mouni L(2016)Multivariate statistical analysis of the groundwater of Ain Djacer area(Eastern of Algeria).Arab J Geosci 9:248
Blake S,Henry T,Murray J,Flood R,Muller MR,Jones AG,Volker Rath(2016)Compositional multivariate statistical analysis of thermal groundwater provenance:a hydrogeochemical case study from Ireland.Appl Geochem 75:171-188
Bouchareb-Haouchine FZ(1993)Apport de la ge′othermome′trie et des donne′es de forages profonds a`l’identification des ressources ge′othermiques de l’Alge′rie du Nord.Application a`la re′gion du Hodna.Me′moire de Magister,Univ.Alger,Alge′rie
Bouchareb-Haouchine FZ(2012)Etude hydrochimique des sources thermales de l’Alge′rie du Nord-Potentialite′s ge′othermiques.These Doctorat en Sciences,USTHB,Algiers
Bouchareb-Haouchine FZ,Issaad A,Bendhia H(1994)Estimation and interpretation of geothermal gradient in Northern Algeria.Bull Serv Ge′ol l’Alge′rie 5:69-74
Craig H(1963)The isotopic geochemistry of water and carbon in geothermal area.In:Tongiori E(ed)Nuclear geol Truesdell AH(1976)Summary of section III.Geochemical techniques in exploration.In:Proceeding 2nd UN symposium on thedevelopment and use of geothermal resources,San Francisco,1975,1,pp 53-79
Cu¨neyt G,Geoffrey D,John E,McCray A,Keith T(2002)Evaluation of graphical and multivariate statistical methods for classification of water chemistry data.Hydrogeol J 10:455-474
Deutsch WJ(1997)Groundwater geochemistry:fundamentals,and applications to contamination.Lewis Publishers,Boca Raton
Dib Adjoul H(1985)Le thermalisme de l’Est Alge′rien.The`se de Doctorat 3e`me cycle,U.S.T.H.B.,Alger,Algerie(in French)
Dib Adjoul H(2008)Guide pratique des sources thermales de l’Est Alge′rien.Me′moires du Service Ge′ologique National,no 15,p 106(in French)
Djebbar M(2005)Caracte′risation du syste`me karstique hydrothermal Constantine-Hamma-Bouziane-Salah Bey dans le Constantinois central(Alge′rie Nord-oriental).The`se de Doctorat,Universite′de Constantine,Alge′rie(in French)
Djemmal S,Menani MR,Chamekh K et al(2017)The contribution of fracturations in the emergence of the thermal springs in Setif city,Eastern Algeria.Carbonates Evaporites.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-017-0375-0
Durozoy G(1960)Les ressources en eau des massifs calcaires cre′tace′s de la re′gion de Constantine.Etude d’hydroge′ologie applique′e.2e?me The`se Sc.Publ.Dir.Hydraul.Equip.Rural.Serv.Sc.Alger(in French)
Emblanch C,Zuppi GM,Mudry J,Blavoux B,Batiot C(2003)Carbon 13 of TDIC to quantify the role of the unsaturated zone:the example of the Vaucluse karst systems(Southeastern France).J Hydrol 279(1):262-274
Farnham IM,Johannesson KH,Singh AK,Hodge VF,Stetzenbach KJ(2003)Factor analytical approaches for evaluating groundwater trace element chemistry data.Anal Chim Acta 490:123-138
Fekraoui A(1988)Geothermal resources in Algeria and their possible use.Geothermics 17(2/3):515-519
Feng Z,Yong L,Huaicheng G(2007)Application of multivariate statistical methods to water quality assessment of the water courses in Northwestern New Territories,Hong Kong.Environ Monit Assess 132:1-13
Fisher RS,Mullican WF(1997)Hydrochemical evolution of sodiumsulfate and sodium-chloride groundwater beneath the Northern Chihuahuan Desert,Trans-Pecos,Texas,USA.Hydrogeol J5(2):4-16
Foued B,He′nia D,Lazhar B et al(2017)Hydrogeochemistry and geothermometry of thermal springs from the Guelma region,Algeria.J Geol Soc India 90:226-232
Fournier RO(1977)Chemical geothermometers and mixing models for geothermal systems.Geothermics 5(41):50
Fournier RO(1979a)Geochemical and hydrologic considerations and the use of enthalpy-chloride diagrams in the prediction of underground conditions in hot-spring systems.J Volcanol Geotherm Res 1-2:1-16
Fournier RO(1979b)A revised equation for Na/K geothermometer.Geotherm Resour Counc Trans 3:221-224
Fournier RO,Truesdell AH(1973)An empirical Na-K-Ca geothermometer for natural waters.Geochim Cosmochim Acta37:1255-1275
Gastmans D,Chang HK,Hutcheon I(2010)Stable isotopes(2H,18Oand13C)in groundwaters from the northwestern portion of the Guarani Aquifer System(Brazil).Hydrogeol J 18:1497
Gibbs RJ(1970)Mechanism controlling world water chemistry.Science 170:1088-1090
Giggenbach WF(1988)Geothermal solute equilibria,derivation of Na-K-Mg-Ca geoindicators.Geochim Cosmochim Acta52:2749-2765
Issaadi A(1992)Le thermalisme dans son cadre ge′ostructurale,apports a`la connaissance de la structure profonde de l’Alge′rie etde ses ressources ge′othermales.The`se de Doctorat d’e′tat,IST,USTHB,Alger(in French)USTHB,Alger(in French)
J?rgensen NO,Banoeng-Yakubo BK(2001)Environmental isotopes(18O,2H,and87Sr/86Sr)as a tool in groundwater investigations in the Keta Basin,Ghana.Hydrogeol J 9:190
Kedaid FZ(2007)Database of the geothermal resources of Algeria.Geothermics 36:265-275
Kedaid FZ,Mesbah M(1996)Geochemical approach to the Bou Hadjar hydrothermal system(NE Algeria).Geothermics25(2):249-257
Kharaka YK,Mariner RH(1989)Chemical geothermometers and their application to formation waters from sedimentary basins.In:Naeser ND,McCulloh TH(eds)Thermal history of sedimentary basins.Springer,New York
King AC,Raiber M,Cox ME(2014)Multivariate statistical analysis of hydrochemical data to assess alluvial aquifer-stream connectivity during drought and flood:cressbrook Creek,southeast Queensland,Australia.Hydrogeol J 22:481
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