干旱区凝结水评估及对水量平衡方程影响
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摘要
凝结水是大气中水汽通过凝结作用向地表输送的水分,在水量平衡计算中常被忽略。本文利用西北干旱区黑河水文气象观测网9个站点2016年涡度相关观测数据,计算评估了相应站点范围的凝结水发生情况、凝结水量量级以及相应的能量闭合度情况。结果表明,黑河流域凝结水现象普遍发生,各站点产生凝结水的天数占全年天数75%以上;各站点年凝结水量最大25.13 mm、最小6.56 mm、平均15.47 mm;各站点总凝结水量与总蒸散发量相比,最大28.82%、最小0.77%、平均6.61%;与总降水量相比,最大63.25%、最小3.02%、平均18.54%;各站点能量闭合度平均为0.69,本文估算的凝结水量或低于实际凝结水量。可以认为,凝结水在干旱区水量平衡中不容忽视。基于此,本文提出在干旱区水量平衡方程中,宜显式表达凝结水过程和凝结水项。引入凝结水的水量平衡分析表明,新水量平衡方程在纳入凝结水这一局地水循环因子后,水量平衡方程闭合度明显提高。
Dew,defined as water transported from atmosphere to certain surface due to condensation,was often ignored in water balance calculation. In this study,observation data from nine stations of Heihe Hydrometeorological Observation Network in 2016 was used to calculate and evaluate dew quantity and duration. The results indicated that condensation was common in Heihe river basin that dew was monitored on more than 75% days in all stations. Dew amount of nine stations in 2016 ranged from 6.56 mm to25.13 mm,while the mean value was 15.47 mm. Calculating the ratio of dew to evapotranspiration,average ratio was 6.61%,while the maximum and minimum ratios were 28.82% and 0.77%,respectively. Ratio of dew to precipitation is 18.54% in average, while the maximum and minimum ratios were 63.25% and3.02%,respectively. The mean energy balance closure is 0.69. These percentages showed that condensed water in arid areas could not be ignored in water balance. Based on above analysis,this paper proposed that dew should be considered in water balance equation of the arid area. The new water balance calculation in desert showed the new water balance equation effectively increased the closure of water balance equation and improved the accuracy of the water balance equation.
Dew,defined as water transported from atmosphere to certain surface due to condensation,was often ignored in water balance calculation. In this study,observation data from nine stations of Heihe Hydrometeorological Observation Network in 2016 was used to calculate and evaluate dew quantity and duration. The results indicated that condensation was common in Heihe river basin that dew was monitored on more than 75% days in all stations. Dew amount of nine stations in 2016 ranged from 6.56 mm to25.13 mm,while the mean value was 15.47 mm. Calculating the ratio of dew to evapotranspiration,average ratio was 6.61%,while the maximum and minimum ratios were 28.82% and 0.77%,respectively. Ratio of dew to precipitation is 18.54% in average, while the maximum and minimum ratios were 63.25% and3.02%,respectively. The mean energy balance closure is 0.69. These percentages showed that condensed water in arid areas could not be ignored in water balance. Based on above analysis,this paper proposed that dew should be considered in water balance equation of the arid area. The new water balance calculation in desert showed the new water balance equation effectively increased the closure of water balance equation and improved the accuracy of the water balance equation.
引文
[1]倪攀,金昌杰,王安志,等.半干旱风沙草原区草地潜热通量的特征[J].中国农业气象,2008(4):427-431,435.
[2]庄艳丽,赵文智.干旱区凝结水研究进展[J].地球科学进展,2008(1):31-38.
[3]张强,王胜.关于干旱和半干旱区陆面水分过程的研究[J].干旱气象,2007(2):1-4.
[4] SUBRAMANIAM A R,RAO A V R K. Dew fall in sand dune areas of India[J]. International Journal of Biometeorology,1983,27(3):271-280.
[5] GUTTERMAN Y,SHEM-TOV S. Mucilaginous seed coat structure of Carrichtera annua and Anastatica hierochuntica from the Negev Desert highlands of Israel,and its adhesion to the soil crust[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,1997,35(4):695-705.
[6] KIDRON G J,HERRNSTADT I,BARZILAY E. The role of dew as a moisture source for sand microbiotic crusts in the Negev Desert,Israel[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,2002,52(4):517-533.
[7] JACOBS A F,HEUSINKVELD B G,BERKOWICZ S M. Dew deposition and drying in a desert system:a simple simulation model[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,1999,42(3):211-222.
[8] DUVDEVANI S. An optical method of dew estimation[J]. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society,1947,73(317/318):282-296.
[9] GILEAD M,ROSENAN N. Ten years of dew observation in Israel[J]. Israel Exploration Journal,1954,4(2):120-123.
[10] KIDRON G J,YAIR A,DANIN A. Dew variability within a small arid drainage basin in the Negev Highlands,Israel[J]. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society,2000,126(562):63-80.
[11] AGAM N,BERLINER P R. Dew formation and water vapor adsorption in semi-arid environments—a review[J].Journal of arid environments,2006,65(4):572-590.
[12] KIDRON G J. A simple weighing method for dew and fog measurements[J]. Weather,1998,53(12):428-433.
[13] KIDRON G J. Altitude dependent dew and fog in the Negev Desert,Israel[J]. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology,1999,96(1/3):1-8.
[14] KIDRON G J,BARZILAY E,SACHS E. Microclimate control upon sand microbiotic crusts,western Negev Desert,Israel[J]. Geomorphology,2000,36(1/2):1-18.
[15] ZANGVIL A. Six years of dew observations in the Negev Desert,Israel[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,1996,32(4):361-371.
[16] JACOBS A F,HEUSINKVELD B G,BERKOWICZ S M. Dew measurements along a longitudinal sand dune transect,Negev Desert,Israel[J]. International Journal of Biometeorology,2000,43(4):184-190.
[17] NINARI N,BERLINER P R. The role of dew in the water and heat balance of bare loess soil in the Negev Desert:quantifying the actual dew deposition on the soil surface[J]. Atmospheric Research,2002,64(1/4):323-334.
[18] VERMEULEN A T,WYERS G P,R?MER F G,et al. Fog deposition on a coniferous forest in The Netherlands[J]. Atmospheric Environment,1997,31(3):375-386.
[19] MORO M J,WERE A,VILLAGARCíA L,et al. Dew measurement by eddy covariance and wetness sensor in a semiarid ecosystem of SE Spain[J]. Journal of Hydrology,2007,335(3/4):295-302.
[20] HAO X M,LI C,GUO B,et al. Dew formation and its long-term trend in a desert riparian forest ecosystem on the eastern edge of the Taklimakan Desert in China[J]. Journal of Hydrology,2012,472:90-98.
[21] LEKOUCH I,LEKOUCH K,MUSELLI M,et al. Rooftop dew,fog and rain collection in southwest Morocco and predictive dew modeling using neural networks[J]. Journal of Hydrology,2012,448:60-72.
[22]涂钢,刘辉志,董文杰.半干旱区不同下垫面近地层湍流通量特征分析[J].大气科学,2009,33(4):719-725.
[23]陈丽晶,张镭,梁捷宁,等.半干旱区不同下垫面大气湍流通量比较分析[J].高原气象,2017,36(5):1325-1335.
[24] ZHANG J,ZHANG Y M,DOWNING A,et al. The influence of biological soil crusts on dew deposition in Gurbantunggut Desert,Northwestern China[J]. Journal of Hydrology,2009,379(3/4):220-228.
[25] JIA R L,LI X R,LIU L C,et al. Effects of sand burial on dew deposition on moss soil crust in a revegetated area of the Tennger Desert,Northern China[J]. Journal of Hydrology,2014,519:2341-2349.
[26] SAMMIS T W,GAY L W. Evapotranspiration from an arid zone plant community[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,1979,2(4):313-321.
[27] MALEK E,MCCURDY G,GILES B. Dew contribution to the annual water balances in semi-arid desert valleys[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,1999,42(2):71-80.
[28] BERKELHAMMER M,HU J,BAILEY A,et al. The nocturnal water cycle in an open-canopy forest[J]. Journal of Geophysical Research:Atmospheres,2013,118(17):10225-10242.
[29]李九一,李丽娟.中国水资源对区域社会经济发展的支撑能力[J].地理学报,2012,67(3):410-419.
[30]李原园,曹建廷,沈福新,等. 1956~2010年中国可更新水资源量的变化[J]. Scientia Sinica Terrae,2014,44(9):2030-2038.
[31] LIU S M,XU Z W,WANG W Z,et al. A comparison of eddy-covariance and large aperture scintillometer measurements with respect to the energy balance closure problem[J]. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences,2011,15(4):1291-1306.
[32] LI X,CHENG GD,LIU SM,et al. Heihe Watershed Allied Telemetry Experimental Research(HiWATER):Scientific objectives and experimental design[J]. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society,2013,94(8):1145-1160.
[33]李新,刘绍民,马明国,等.黑河流域生态—水文过程综合遥感观测联合试验总体设计[J].地球科学进展,2012,27(5):481-498.
[34]王维真,徐自为,刘绍民,等.黑河流域不同下垫面水热通量特征分析[J].地球科学进展,2009,24(7):714-723.
[35]张智慧,王维真,马明国,等.黑河综合遥感联合试验涡度相关通量数据处理及产品分析[J].遥感技术与应用,2010,25(6):788-796.
[36] WEBB E K,PEARMAN G I,LEUNING R. Correction of flux measurements for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer[J]. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society,1980,106(447):85-100.
[37] REYNOLDS O. On the dynamical theory of incompressible viscous fluids and the determination of the criterion[J]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A:Mathematical,Physical and Engineering Sciences,1895(186):123-164.
[38] LEE X,MASSMAN W,LAW B. Handbook of micrometeorology:a guide for surface flux measurement and analysis[M]. Springer Science&Business Media,2004.
[39] FALGE E,BALDOCCHI D,OLSON R,et al. Gap filling strategies for long term energy flux data sets[J]. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology,2001,107(1):71-77.
[40]郭晓楠,查天山,贾昕,等.典型沙生灌木生态系统凝结水量估算[J].北京林业大学学报,2016,38(10):80-87.
[41]董斌,崔远来,黄汉生,等.国际水管理研究院水量平衡计算框架和相关评价指标[J].中国农村水利水电,2003(1):5-8.
[42] PENG J,LOEW A,MERLIN O,et al. A review of spatial downscaling of satellite remotely sensed soil moisture[J]. Reviews of Geophysics,2017,55(2):341-366.
[43] ZHANG L,POTTER N,HICKEL K,et al. Water balance modeling over variable time scales based on the Budyko framework-Model development and testing[J]. Journal of Hydrology,2008,360(1/4):117-131.
[44] TWINE T E,KUSTAS W P,NORMAN J M,et al. Correcting eddy-covariance flux underestimates over a grassland[J]. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology,2000,103(3):279-300.
[45] WILSON K,GOLDSTEIN A,FALGE E,et al. Energy balance closure at FLUXNET sites[J]. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology,2002,113(1/4):223-243.
[46]郭斌,陈亚宁,郝兴明,等.不同下垫面土壤凝结水特征及其影响因素[J].自然资源学报,2011,26(11):1963-1974.
[47] YE Y,ZHOU K,SONG L,et al. Dew amounts and its correlations with meteorological factors in urban landscapes of Guangzhou,China[J]. Atmospheric Research,2007,86(1):21-29.
[2]庄艳丽,赵文智.干旱区凝结水研究进展[J].地球科学进展,2008(1):31-38.
[3]张强,王胜.关于干旱和半干旱区陆面水分过程的研究[J].干旱气象,2007(2):1-4.
[4] SUBRAMANIAM A R,RAO A V R K. Dew fall in sand dune areas of India[J]. International Journal of Biometeorology,1983,27(3):271-280.
[5] GUTTERMAN Y,SHEM-TOV S. Mucilaginous seed coat structure of Carrichtera annua and Anastatica hierochuntica from the Negev Desert highlands of Israel,and its adhesion to the soil crust[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,1997,35(4):695-705.
[6] KIDRON G J,HERRNSTADT I,BARZILAY E. The role of dew as a moisture source for sand microbiotic crusts in the Negev Desert,Israel[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,2002,52(4):517-533.
[7] JACOBS A F,HEUSINKVELD B G,BERKOWICZ S M. Dew deposition and drying in a desert system:a simple simulation model[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,1999,42(3):211-222.
[8] DUVDEVANI S. An optical method of dew estimation[J]. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society,1947,73(317/318):282-296.
[9] GILEAD M,ROSENAN N. Ten years of dew observation in Israel[J]. Israel Exploration Journal,1954,4(2):120-123.
[10] KIDRON G J,YAIR A,DANIN A. Dew variability within a small arid drainage basin in the Negev Highlands,Israel[J]. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society,2000,126(562):63-80.
[11] AGAM N,BERLINER P R. Dew formation and water vapor adsorption in semi-arid environments—a review[J].Journal of arid environments,2006,65(4):572-590.
[12] KIDRON G J. A simple weighing method for dew and fog measurements[J]. Weather,1998,53(12):428-433.
[13] KIDRON G J. Altitude dependent dew and fog in the Negev Desert,Israel[J]. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology,1999,96(1/3):1-8.
[14] KIDRON G J,BARZILAY E,SACHS E. Microclimate control upon sand microbiotic crusts,western Negev Desert,Israel[J]. Geomorphology,2000,36(1/2):1-18.
[15] ZANGVIL A. Six years of dew observations in the Negev Desert,Israel[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,1996,32(4):361-371.
[16] JACOBS A F,HEUSINKVELD B G,BERKOWICZ S M. Dew measurements along a longitudinal sand dune transect,Negev Desert,Israel[J]. International Journal of Biometeorology,2000,43(4):184-190.
[17] NINARI N,BERLINER P R. The role of dew in the water and heat balance of bare loess soil in the Negev Desert:quantifying the actual dew deposition on the soil surface[J]. Atmospheric Research,2002,64(1/4):323-334.
[18] VERMEULEN A T,WYERS G P,R?MER F G,et al. Fog deposition on a coniferous forest in The Netherlands[J]. Atmospheric Environment,1997,31(3):375-386.
[19] MORO M J,WERE A,VILLAGARCíA L,et al. Dew measurement by eddy covariance and wetness sensor in a semiarid ecosystem of SE Spain[J]. Journal of Hydrology,2007,335(3/4):295-302.
[20] HAO X M,LI C,GUO B,et al. Dew formation and its long-term trend in a desert riparian forest ecosystem on the eastern edge of the Taklimakan Desert in China[J]. Journal of Hydrology,2012,472:90-98.
[21] LEKOUCH I,LEKOUCH K,MUSELLI M,et al. Rooftop dew,fog and rain collection in southwest Morocco and predictive dew modeling using neural networks[J]. Journal of Hydrology,2012,448:60-72.
[22]涂钢,刘辉志,董文杰.半干旱区不同下垫面近地层湍流通量特征分析[J].大气科学,2009,33(4):719-725.
[23]陈丽晶,张镭,梁捷宁,等.半干旱区不同下垫面大气湍流通量比较分析[J].高原气象,2017,36(5):1325-1335.
[24] ZHANG J,ZHANG Y M,DOWNING A,et al. The influence of biological soil crusts on dew deposition in Gurbantunggut Desert,Northwestern China[J]. Journal of Hydrology,2009,379(3/4):220-228.
[25] JIA R L,LI X R,LIU L C,et al. Effects of sand burial on dew deposition on moss soil crust in a revegetated area of the Tennger Desert,Northern China[J]. Journal of Hydrology,2014,519:2341-2349.
[26] SAMMIS T W,GAY L W. Evapotranspiration from an arid zone plant community[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,1979,2(4):313-321.
[27] MALEK E,MCCURDY G,GILES B. Dew contribution to the annual water balances in semi-arid desert valleys[J]. Journal of Arid Environments,1999,42(2):71-80.
[28] BERKELHAMMER M,HU J,BAILEY A,et al. The nocturnal water cycle in an open-canopy forest[J]. Journal of Geophysical Research:Atmospheres,2013,118(17):10225-10242.
[29]李九一,李丽娟.中国水资源对区域社会经济发展的支撑能力[J].地理学报,2012,67(3):410-419.
[30]李原园,曹建廷,沈福新,等. 1956~2010年中国可更新水资源量的变化[J]. Scientia Sinica Terrae,2014,44(9):2030-2038.
[31] LIU S M,XU Z W,WANG W Z,et al. A comparison of eddy-covariance and large aperture scintillometer measurements with respect to the energy balance closure problem[J]. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences,2011,15(4):1291-1306.
[32] LI X,CHENG GD,LIU SM,et al. Heihe Watershed Allied Telemetry Experimental Research(HiWATER):Scientific objectives and experimental design[J]. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society,2013,94(8):1145-1160.
[33]李新,刘绍民,马明国,等.黑河流域生态—水文过程综合遥感观测联合试验总体设计[J].地球科学进展,2012,27(5):481-498.
[34]王维真,徐自为,刘绍民,等.黑河流域不同下垫面水热通量特征分析[J].地球科学进展,2009,24(7):714-723.
[35]张智慧,王维真,马明国,等.黑河综合遥感联合试验涡度相关通量数据处理及产品分析[J].遥感技术与应用,2010,25(6):788-796.
[36] WEBB E K,PEARMAN G I,LEUNING R. Correction of flux measurements for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer[J]. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society,1980,106(447):85-100.
[37] REYNOLDS O. On the dynamical theory of incompressible viscous fluids and the determination of the criterion[J]. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A:Mathematical,Physical and Engineering Sciences,1895(186):123-164.
[38] LEE X,MASSMAN W,LAW B. Handbook of micrometeorology:a guide for surface flux measurement and analysis[M]. Springer Science&Business Media,2004.
[39] FALGE E,BALDOCCHI D,OLSON R,et al. Gap filling strategies for long term energy flux data sets[J]. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology,2001,107(1):71-77.
[40]郭晓楠,查天山,贾昕,等.典型沙生灌木生态系统凝结水量估算[J].北京林业大学学报,2016,38(10):80-87.
[41]董斌,崔远来,黄汉生,等.国际水管理研究院水量平衡计算框架和相关评价指标[J].中国农村水利水电,2003(1):5-8.
[42] PENG J,LOEW A,MERLIN O,et al. A review of spatial downscaling of satellite remotely sensed soil moisture[J]. Reviews of Geophysics,2017,55(2):341-366.
[43] ZHANG L,POTTER N,HICKEL K,et al. Water balance modeling over variable time scales based on the Budyko framework-Model development and testing[J]. Journal of Hydrology,2008,360(1/4):117-131.
[44] TWINE T E,KUSTAS W P,NORMAN J M,et al. Correcting eddy-covariance flux underestimates over a grassland[J]. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology,2000,103(3):279-300.
[45] WILSON K,GOLDSTEIN A,FALGE E,et al. Energy balance closure at FLUXNET sites[J]. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology,2002,113(1/4):223-243.
[46]郭斌,陈亚宁,郝兴明,等.不同下垫面土壤凝结水特征及其影响因素[J].自然资源学报,2011,26(11):1963-1974.
[47] YE Y,ZHOU K,SONG L,et al. Dew amounts and its correlations with meteorological factors in urban landscapes of Guangzhou,China[J]. Atmospheric Research,2007,86(1):21-29.