科学发现的心理逻辑模型
|
摘要
科学发现的重要方法包括皮尔士称为―扩展前提的推理‖的溯因方法和归纳方法,以及皮尔士未曾提及但在当今认知科学中备受青睐的类比和隐喻方法,这3类方法被用来寻找和提出假说;而皮尔士的另一类―解释前提的推理‖即演绎推理则用来验证假说.本文指出,在人类认知活动中,所有逻辑过程同时也是心理过程,因此,所有逻辑都是心理逻辑.作者追溯自苏格拉底以来在西方哲学、逻辑学和数学证明中使用的溯因推理,指出每一个定理的证明都是一个溯因推理过程.本文还以近代科学发现的一些著名例子,如大陆漂移和板块结构理论、大爆炸宇宙论的建立和培根机器的定理证明,来说明溯因推理、归纳推理和类比推理在科学发现中的作用.特别地,以著名的沃森实验为例,详细分析演绎推理和溯因推理的心理逻辑性质,建立认知逻辑(cognitive logic)的学科体系,将溯因推理安放在认知逻辑和心理逻辑的合理框架之内.最后,建立包括溯因、类比、归纳3个并行通道和演绎的1个串行通道的科学发现的心理逻辑模型.本模型是基于认知科学理解的综合模型,较之已有的任何同类模型都更为先进,对经典的科学发现也有更强的解释力.根据此模型,作者对与科学发现有关的一些重要问题进行讨论,并得出一些有意义的结论.
The critical methods for the scientific discovery should include abduction and induction that Peirce named as ampliative(synthetic) inferences, as well as analogy and metaphor that did not mentioned by Peirce but were very favor by contemporary cognitive scientists. In the author's view, abduction, induction, analogy and metaphor are the methods to be used in search of and set up hypothesis, and deduction, explicative(analytic or deductive) inferences named by Peirce, can be used in validating that hypothesis. The study advocates that all logical processing is accompanied with psychological processes in human's cognition, therefore, all logics are psychological. The author indicates that every process of proof is abductive by tracing the inferences in philosophy, logic and mathematics in the western world since Socrates. The authors also illuminate the effects of abduction, induction and analogy in scientific discovery with some examples in modern sciences such as continental drift and plate tectonics, Big Bang Cosmology, and theorem-proving with Bacon machine. Especially, this paper analyzes carefully the characters of psychological logics such as deduction and abduction with a famous Wason selection task as example. Then, a discipline frame of cognitive logic will be created, while abduction would be placed into this new frame becomingly, belonged to a sub-discipline of cognitive logic, i.e., psychological logics. Finally, a model in psychologcical logics with three parallel channels and a serial channel will be set up. With this model, abduction, analogy and induction should be used in describing or even to finding hypotheses in scientific discovery, while deduction should be used in validating the hypotheses. This model is an integrative model based on the cognitive scientific comprehensions, which is more advanced than any other similar models and has stronger explanations for scientific discovery. With this model, the author will discuss some problems related with scientific discovery and get some meaningful conclusions in this paper.
The critical methods for the scientific discovery should include abduction and induction that Peirce named as ampliative(synthetic) inferences, as well as analogy and metaphor that did not mentioned by Peirce but were very favor by contemporary cognitive scientists. In the author's view, abduction, induction, analogy and metaphor are the methods to be used in search of and set up hypothesis, and deduction, explicative(analytic or deductive) inferences named by Peirce, can be used in validating that hypothesis. The study advocates that all logical processing is accompanied with psychological processes in human's cognition, therefore, all logics are psychological. The author indicates that every process of proof is abductive by tracing the inferences in philosophy, logic and mathematics in the western world since Socrates. The authors also illuminate the effects of abduction, induction and analogy in scientific discovery with some examples in modern sciences such as continental drift and plate tectonics, Big Bang Cosmology, and theorem-proving with Bacon machine. Especially, this paper analyzes carefully the characters of psychological logics such as deduction and abduction with a famous Wason selection task as example. Then, a discipline frame of cognitive logic will be created, while abduction would be placed into this new frame becomingly, belonged to a sub-discipline of cognitive logic, i.e., psychological logics. Finally, a model in psychologcical logics with three parallel channels and a serial channel will be set up. With this model, abduction, analogy and induction should be used in describing or even to finding hypotheses in scientific discovery, while deduction should be used in validating the hypotheses. This model is an integrative model based on the cognitive scientific comprehensions, which is more advanced than any other similar models and has stronger explanations for scientific discovery. With this model, the author will discuss some problems related with scientific discovery and get some meaningful conclusions in this paper.
引文
1 Patterson R,Barbey A K.A cognitive neuroscience framework for causal reasoning.In:Krueger F,Grafman J,eds.Basis of Human Belief System,Hove.New York:Psychology Press,2013.76 120
2 Barbey A K,Grafman J.An integrative cognitive neuroscience theory for social reasoning and moral judgment.Cogn Sci,2011,2:55 67
3 Searle J R.Mind:A Brief Introduction.Oxford:Oxford University Press,2004.193 214
4 Heil J,Mele A.Mental Causation.Oxford:Clarendon Press,1993.53 96
5 Campbell D T.Downward causation’in hierarchically organised biological systems.In:Ayala F J,Dobzhansky T,eds.Studies in the Philosophy of Biology.California:University of California Press,1974.179 186
6 Murphy N,Ellis G F R,O’Connor T,eds.Downward Causation and the Neurobiology of Free Will.Berlin:Springer Verlag,2009.63 82
7 Fann K T.Peirce’s Theory of Abduction.Michigan:Martinus Nijhoff,1970.7 10
8 柏拉图.柏拉图全集.王晓朝,译.北京:人民出版社,2002.491 536
9 西汉赵君卿.周髀算经.北京:文物出版社,1980.1 5
10 Plato.Works(English&Greek).Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1914 1937.317 319
11 Magnani L.Abduction,Reason and Science:Processes of Discovery and Explanation.Netherlands:Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers,2000.6
12 李信明.中国数学五千年.台北:台湾书店,1988.106
13 欧几里得.燕晓东编译.几何原本.北京:人民日报出版社,2009.29
14 蔡曙山.一个与卢卡西维兹不同的亚里士多德三段论形式系统.哲学研究,1988,4:33 41
15 Fann K T.Peirce’s Theory of Abduction,The Hague:M.Nijhoff,1970.7
16 Fann K T.Peirce’s Theory of Abduction.Michigan:Martinus Nijhoff,1970.8
17 迈尔斯D G.黄希庭,郑涌,苏彦捷,等译.心理学.第7版.北京:人民邮电出版社,2006.330
18 Wason,P C.Reasoning.In:Foss B Med.New horizons in Psychology.Harmondsworth:Penguin,1966.135–151
19 Wason,P C,Shapiro D.Natural and contrived experience in a reasoning problem.Q J Exp Psychol,1971,23:63–71
20 Marcus S L,Rips L J.Conditional reasoning.J Verbal Learning Verbal Behavior,1979,18:199 233
21 Cai S.Logics in a New Frame of Cognitive Science:On Cognitive Logic,its Objects,Methods and Systems,Logic,Methodology and Philosophy of Science.In:Proceeding of the 13th International Congress,Vol.1.London:King’s College Publications,2009.427 442
22 蔡曙山.认知科学框架下心理学、逻辑学的交叉融合与发展.中国社会科学,2009,2:25 38
23 Cosmides L,Tooby J.Cognitive adaptations for social exchange.In:Barkow J H,Cosmides L,Tooby J,eds.The Adapted Mind:Evolutio nary Psychology and the Generation of Culture.New York,NY:Oxford University Press,1992.163 228
24 Kantor J R.Psychology and Logic.Bloomington:Principia Press,1945
25 弗雷格G.数的概念.见:保罗·贝纳塞拉夫,希拉里·普特南.朱水林,等译.数学哲学.北京:商务印书馆.2003.149 183
26 弗雷格G.算术基础,见:王路,译.算术基础.北京:商务印书馆,1998.5-13
27 Harnish R M.Minds,Brains,Computers:An Historical Introduction to the Foundations of Cognitive Science.Malden,MA:Blackwell Publishers,2002.7
28 Cai S.Logics in a New Frame of Cognitive Science:On Cognitive Logic,its Objects,Methods and Systems,Logic,Methodology and Philosophy of Science.In:Proceeding of the 13th International Congress,Vol.1.London:King’s College Publications,2009.427 442
29 Cai S.The age of synthesis:From cognitive science to converging technologies and hereafter.Chin Sci Bull,2011,56:465 475
30 Wason P C,Johnson-Laird P N.Psychology of Reasoning;Structure and Content.Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1972
31 Miller G A,Johnson-Laird P N.Language and Perception.Cambridge:Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,1976
32 Johnson-Laird P N,Wason P C.Thinking:Readings in Cognitive science.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1977
33 Johnson-Laird P N.Mental Models:Towards a Cognitive Science of Language,Inference,and Consciousness.Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1983
34 Johnson-Laird P N.Human and Machine Thinking.Hillsdale:Erlbaum Associates,1993
35 Lance J R.The Psychology of Proof:Deductive Reasoning in Human Thinking.Cambridge:MIT Press,1994
36 Tversky A,Kahneman D.Judgment under uncertainty:Heuristics and biases.Science,1974,185:1124 1131
37 Kahneman D,Tversky A.Choices,values,and frames.Am Psychol,1984,39:341 350
38 Kahneman D.Thinking,Fast and Slow.New York:Farrar,Straus and Giroux,2011.278 288
39 Magnani L.Abduction,Reason and Science:Processes of Discovery and Explanation.Amstede:Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers,2000,47
40 Hubble E.A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA,1929,15:168 173
41 Alpher R A,Gamow G.The origin of chemical elements.Phys Rev,1948,73:803
42 Lakoff G,Johnson M.Metaphors We Live By.Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2003.3 6
43 Lakoff G,Johnson M.Philosophy in the Flesh:The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought.New York:Basic Books,1999.3
44 Holyoak K J,Thagard P.The Analogical Mind.Am Psycholo,1997,52:35 44
45 Chalmers D J,French R M,Hofstadter D,et al.High-level perception,representation,and analogy.J Exp Theor Artif Int,1992,4:3 38
46 Forbus K,Gentner D,Markman A,et al.Analogy just looks like high level perception:Why a domain-general approach to analogical mapping is right.J Exp Theor Artif Int,1998,10:231 257
47 Hofstadter D.Analogy as the Core of Cognition.In:Gentner D,Holyoak K,and Kokinov B,eds.The Analogical Mind:Perspectives from Cognitive Science,Cambridge,MA:The MIT Press/Bradford Book,2001.499 538
48 G del K.On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems.New York:Dover Publications,1992.37 72
49 Langley P.Bacon 1:A general discovery system.In:Proceedings of the Second Biennial Conference of the Canadian Society for Computational Studies of Intelligence.1978.173 180
50 Searle J R.Minds,brains,and programs.Behav Brain Sci,1980,3:417 424
51 Searle J R.Who is computing with the brain?Behav Brain Sci,1990,13:632 642
52 Searle J R.Is the brain a digital computer?Proc Addresses Am Philosophl Assoc,1990,64:21 37
53 Searle J R.Is the brain’s mind a computer program?Sci Am,1990,262:26 31
54 蔡曙山.关于哲学、心理学和认知科学的12个问题与塞尔教授的对话.学术界,2007,3:7 17
55 Simon H A.Models of Man:Social and Rational-Mathematical Essays on Rational Human Behavior in a Social Setting.New York:Wiley,1957
56 蔡曙山.经验在认知中的作用.科学中国人,2003,12:37 39
2 Barbey A K,Grafman J.An integrative cognitive neuroscience theory for social reasoning and moral judgment.Cogn Sci,2011,2:55 67
3 Searle J R.Mind:A Brief Introduction.Oxford:Oxford University Press,2004.193 214
4 Heil J,Mele A.Mental Causation.Oxford:Clarendon Press,1993.53 96
5 Campbell D T.Downward causation’in hierarchically organised biological systems.In:Ayala F J,Dobzhansky T,eds.Studies in the Philosophy of Biology.California:University of California Press,1974.179 186
6 Murphy N,Ellis G F R,O’Connor T,eds.Downward Causation and the Neurobiology of Free Will.Berlin:Springer Verlag,2009.63 82
7 Fann K T.Peirce’s Theory of Abduction.Michigan:Martinus Nijhoff,1970.7 10
8 柏拉图.柏拉图全集.王晓朝,译.北京:人民出版社,2002.491 536
9 西汉赵君卿.周髀算经.北京:文物出版社,1980.1 5
10 Plato.Works(English&Greek).Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1914 1937.317 319
11 Magnani L.Abduction,Reason and Science:Processes of Discovery and Explanation.Netherlands:Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers,2000.6
12 李信明.中国数学五千年.台北:台湾书店,1988.106
13 欧几里得.燕晓东编译.几何原本.北京:人民日报出版社,2009.29
14 蔡曙山.一个与卢卡西维兹不同的亚里士多德三段论形式系统.哲学研究,1988,4:33 41
15 Fann K T.Peirce’s Theory of Abduction,The Hague:M.Nijhoff,1970.7
16 Fann K T.Peirce’s Theory of Abduction.Michigan:Martinus Nijhoff,1970.8
17 迈尔斯D G.黄希庭,郑涌,苏彦捷,等译.心理学.第7版.北京:人民邮电出版社,2006.330
18 Wason,P C.Reasoning.In:Foss B Med.New horizons in Psychology.Harmondsworth:Penguin,1966.135–151
19 Wason,P C,Shapiro D.Natural and contrived experience in a reasoning problem.Q J Exp Psychol,1971,23:63–71
20 Marcus S L,Rips L J.Conditional reasoning.J Verbal Learning Verbal Behavior,1979,18:199 233
21 Cai S.Logics in a New Frame of Cognitive Science:On Cognitive Logic,its Objects,Methods and Systems,Logic,Methodology and Philosophy of Science.In:Proceeding of the 13th International Congress,Vol.1.London:King’s College Publications,2009.427 442
22 蔡曙山.认知科学框架下心理学、逻辑学的交叉融合与发展.中国社会科学,2009,2:25 38
23 Cosmides L,Tooby J.Cognitive adaptations for social exchange.In:Barkow J H,Cosmides L,Tooby J,eds.The Adapted Mind:Evolutio nary Psychology and the Generation of Culture.New York,NY:Oxford University Press,1992.163 228
24 Kantor J R.Psychology and Logic.Bloomington:Principia Press,1945
25 弗雷格G.数的概念.见:保罗·贝纳塞拉夫,希拉里·普特南.朱水林,等译.数学哲学.北京:商务印书馆.2003.149 183
26 弗雷格G.算术基础,见:王路,译.算术基础.北京:商务印书馆,1998.5-13
27 Harnish R M.Minds,Brains,Computers:An Historical Introduction to the Foundations of Cognitive Science.Malden,MA:Blackwell Publishers,2002.7
28 Cai S.Logics in a New Frame of Cognitive Science:On Cognitive Logic,its Objects,Methods and Systems,Logic,Methodology and Philosophy of Science.In:Proceeding of the 13th International Congress,Vol.1.London:King’s College Publications,2009.427 442
29 Cai S.The age of synthesis:From cognitive science to converging technologies and hereafter.Chin Sci Bull,2011,56:465 475
30 Wason P C,Johnson-Laird P N.Psychology of Reasoning;Structure and Content.Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1972
31 Miller G A,Johnson-Laird P N.Language and Perception.Cambridge:Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,1976
32 Johnson-Laird P N,Wason P C.Thinking:Readings in Cognitive science.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1977
33 Johnson-Laird P N.Mental Models:Towards a Cognitive Science of Language,Inference,and Consciousness.Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1983
34 Johnson-Laird P N.Human and Machine Thinking.Hillsdale:Erlbaum Associates,1993
35 Lance J R.The Psychology of Proof:Deductive Reasoning in Human Thinking.Cambridge:MIT Press,1994
36 Tversky A,Kahneman D.Judgment under uncertainty:Heuristics and biases.Science,1974,185:1124 1131
37 Kahneman D,Tversky A.Choices,values,and frames.Am Psychol,1984,39:341 350
38 Kahneman D.Thinking,Fast and Slow.New York:Farrar,Straus and Giroux,2011.278 288
39 Magnani L.Abduction,Reason and Science:Processes of Discovery and Explanation.Amstede:Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers,2000,47
40 Hubble E.A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA,1929,15:168 173
41 Alpher R A,Gamow G.The origin of chemical elements.Phys Rev,1948,73:803
42 Lakoff G,Johnson M.Metaphors We Live By.Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2003.3 6
43 Lakoff G,Johnson M.Philosophy in the Flesh:The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought.New York:Basic Books,1999.3
44 Holyoak K J,Thagard P.The Analogical Mind.Am Psycholo,1997,52:35 44
45 Chalmers D J,French R M,Hofstadter D,et al.High-level perception,representation,and analogy.J Exp Theor Artif Int,1992,4:3 38
46 Forbus K,Gentner D,Markman A,et al.Analogy just looks like high level perception:Why a domain-general approach to analogical mapping is right.J Exp Theor Artif Int,1998,10:231 257
47 Hofstadter D.Analogy as the Core of Cognition.In:Gentner D,Holyoak K,and Kokinov B,eds.The Analogical Mind:Perspectives from Cognitive Science,Cambridge,MA:The MIT Press/Bradford Book,2001.499 538
48 G del K.On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems.New York:Dover Publications,1992.37 72
49 Langley P.Bacon 1:A general discovery system.In:Proceedings of the Second Biennial Conference of the Canadian Society for Computational Studies of Intelligence.1978.173 180
50 Searle J R.Minds,brains,and programs.Behav Brain Sci,1980,3:417 424
51 Searle J R.Who is computing with the brain?Behav Brain Sci,1990,13:632 642
52 Searle J R.Is the brain a digital computer?Proc Addresses Am Philosophl Assoc,1990,64:21 37
53 Searle J R.Is the brain’s mind a computer program?Sci Am,1990,262:26 31
54 蔡曙山.关于哲学、心理学和认知科学的12个问题与塞尔教授的对话.学术界,2007,3:7 17
55 Simon H A.Models of Man:Social and Rational-Mathematical Essays on Rational Human Behavior in a Social Setting.New York:Wiley,1957
56 蔡曙山.经验在认知中的作用.科学中国人,2003,12:37 39