存在初始“传导盖层”的月球岩浆洋演化与月壳成因
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摘要
月球早期经历了岩浆洋阶段,岩浆洋的研究对认识月球内部构造有着重要意义。月球岩浆洋演化主导模型认为:岩浆洋结晶到80%左右,斜长石开始结晶,并上浮形成斜长岩月壳。该模型与观察事实存在两点矛盾:1)基于该模型计算结晶的斜长石An牌号比高地样品斜长石An牌号测试结果低;2)该模型散热速率计算指示岩浆洋在几个百万年时间内固化,而同位素体系对月球岩石样品定年结果表明月壳的结晶年龄十分古老,并且结晶区间跨越了270Myr,这与主导模型之间存在矛盾。以解决以上两点矛盾为目的,本文论证岩浆洋在演化之初硕部存在冷却"盖层",并将硅酸盐熔体在温度梯度下的热扩散效应引入岩浆洋演化模型。热扩散效应指均一的物质在温度梯度下发生分异的过程。本文工作模型是:由于月球的重力常数小,不能有效的保持大气,因此月球的岩浆洋表面温度很低。此时岩浆洋自上而下存在一个过渡的瞬态固化"盖层"(淬火层),岩浆洋自上而下存在温度梯度,岩浆洋在该梯度下发生热扩散效应(Soret效应),Soret效应导致上部结晶斜长石的熔体富Ca和贫Na,因此结晶的斜长石An牌号高。
The early state of the Moon is thought to be Lunar Magma Ocean(LMO).Studies of LMO not only have significant meaning for recognizing the internal structure of the Moon,but also can be indicative for the origin of the Moon and planets.The dominated model of the LMO suggests that after 80%of the LMO solidified,plagioclase starts to crystallize and floats to the surface to form anorthositic crust and the whole solidifying time for the LMO is only several million years.The dominated model has discrepancy with the Apollo observations that crystallization age of anorthosites span 270 Myr.To solve this problem,we focus on the temperature gradient in the LMO and apply mass transport under thermal gradient to its evolution.Chemical heterogeneity can occur in the initially homogenous silicate melt under thermal gradient,which is named thermal diffusion.Our working model is:the LMO is stratified in composition,and the lunar crust is formed from the upper part-the partially crystallizing zone.Calculations of An of plagioclase and the speed of diapirs also support this crust-forming model.
The early state of the Moon is thought to be Lunar Magma Ocean(LMO).Studies of LMO not only have significant meaning for recognizing the internal structure of the Moon,but also can be indicative for the origin of the Moon and planets.The dominated model of the LMO suggests that after 80%of the LMO solidified,plagioclase starts to crystallize and floats to the surface to form anorthositic crust and the whole solidifying time for the LMO is only several million years.The dominated model has discrepancy with the Apollo observations that crystallization age of anorthosites span 270 Myr.To solve this problem,we focus on the temperature gradient in the LMO and apply mass transport under thermal gradient to its evolution.Chemical heterogeneity can occur in the initially homogenous silicate melt under thermal gradient,which is named thermal diffusion.Our working model is:the LMO is stratified in composition,and the lunar crust is formed from the upper part-the partially crystallizing zone.Calculations of An of plagioclase and the speed of diapirs also support this crust-forming model.
引文
Abe Y.1997.Thermal and chemical evolution of the terrestrial magma ocean.Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors,100(1-4):27-39
Agnor CB,Canup RM and Levison HF.1999.On the character and consequences of large impacts in the late stage of terrestrial planet formation.Icarus,142(1):219-237
Alibert C,Norman MD and Mcculloch MT.1994.An ancient Sm-Nd age for a ferroan noritic anorthosite clast from lunar breccia 67016.Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,58(13):2921-2926
Borg LE,Norman M,Nyquist L,Bogard D,Snyder G,Taylor L and Lindstrom M.1999.Isotopic studies of ferroan anorthosite 62236:A young lunar crustal rock from a light rare-earth-element-depleted source.Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,63(17):2679-2691
Borg LE,Connelly JN,Boyet M and Carlson RW.2011.Chronological evidence that the Moon is either young or did not have a global magma ocean.Nature,477(7362):70-72
Bowen NL.1921.Diffusion in silicate melts.The Journal of Geology,29(4):295-317
Chambers JE.2004.Planetary accretion in the inner Solar System.Earth and Planetary Science Letters,223(3-4):241-252
Chambers JE.2014.Planet formation.In:Holland HD and Turekian HK(eds.).Treatise on Geochemistry.2~(nd)Edition.Oxford:Elsevier,55-72
Elkins-Tanton LT,Van Orman JA,Hager BH and Grove TL.2002.Reexamination of the lunar magma ocean cumulate overturn hypothesis:Melting or mixing is required.Earth and Planetary Science Letters,196(3-4):239-249
Elkins-Tanton LT.2008.Linked magma ocean solidification and atmospheric growth for Earth and Mars.Earth and Planetary Science Letters,271(1-4):181-191
Elkins-Tanton LT.2012.Magma oceans in the inner solar system.Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences,40(1):113-139
Elkins-Tanton LT.2013.Planetary science:Evolutionary dichotomy for rocky planets.Nature,497(7451):570-572
Genda H and Abe Y.2003.Survival of a proto-atmosphere through the stage of giant impacts:The mechanical aspects.Icarus,164(1):149-162
Genda H and Abe Y.2005.Enhanced atmospheric loss on protoplanets at the giant impact phase in the presence of oceans.Nature,433(7028):842-844
Ghiorso MS and Sack RO.1995.Chemical mass transfer in magmatic processes IV.A revised and internally consistent thermodynamic model for the interpolation and extrapolation of liquid-solid equilibria in magmatic systems at elevated temperatures and pressures.Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology,119(2-3):197-212
Ghiorso MS,Hirschmann MM,Reiners PW and KressⅢVC.2002.The pMELTS:A revision of MELTS for improved calculation of phase relations and major element partitioning related to partial melting of the mantle to 3GPa.Geochemistry,Geophysics,Geosystems,3(5):1-35
Glazner AF.1994.Foundering of mafic plutons and density stratification of continental-crust.Geology,22(5):435-438
Gross J,Treiman AH and Mercer CN.2014.Lunar feldspathic meteorites:Constraints on the geology of the lunar highlands,and the origin of the lunar crust.Earth and Planetary Science Letters,388:318-328
Hamano K,Abe Y and Genda H.2013.Emergence of two types of terrestrial planet on solidification of magma ocean.Nature,497(7451):607-610
Hauri EH,Saal AE,Rutherford MJ and Van Orman JA.2015.Water in the Moon's interior:Truth and consequences.Earth and Planetary Science Letters,409:252-264
Hofmeister AM.1983.Effect of a hadean terrestrial magma ocean on crust and mantle evolution.Journal of Geophysical Research,88(B6):4963-4983
Hu S,Lin YT,Zhang JC,Hao JL,Feng L,Zhao XC and Yang W.2012.Lack of water:The proof from lunar meteorolite.In:The National 10~(th)the Moon and the Comparative Planetology,Meteorites and Cosmochemistry Conference.Guilin:CSSR(in Chinese)
Huang F,Lundstrom CC,Glessner J,Ianno A,Boudreau A,Li JF,Ferre EC,Marshak S and DeFrates J.2009.Chemical and isotopic fractionation of wet andesite in a temperature gradient:Experiments and models suggesting a new mechanism of magma differentiation.Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,73(3):729-749
Johnson TE,Brown M,Kaus BJ and VanTongeren JA.2014.Delamination and recycling of Archaean crust caused by gravitational instabilities.Nature Geoscience,7(1):47-52
Keszthelyi L,Jaeger WL,Turtle EP,Milazzo M and Radebaugh J.2004.A post-Galileo view of Io's interior.Icarus,169(1):271-286
Lainey V,Arlot JE,Karatekin(O|¨)and Van Hoolst T.2009.Strong tidal dissipation in Io and Jupiter from astrometric observations.Nature,459(7249):957-959
Lesher CE and Walker D.1988.Cumulate maturation and melt migration in a temperature gradient.Journal of Geophysical Research,93(B9):10295-10311
Lewis DA.2000.Anorthosites.Springer
Lin YT.2010.Key issues of the formation and evolution of the Moon.Geochimica,39(1):1-10(in Chinese with English abstract)
Longhi J and Pan V.1988.A reconnaisance study of phase boundaries in low-alkali basaltic liquids.Journal of Petrology,29(1):115-147
Longhi J.2003.A new view of lunar ferroan anorthosites:Postmagma ocean petrogenesis.Journal of Geophysical Research,108(E8):5083
Namur O,Charlier B,Toplis MJ and Auwera JV.2012.Prediction of plagioclase-melt equilibria in anhydrous silicate melts at 1-atm.Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology,163(1):133-150
Ohtake M,Matsunaga T,Haruyama J,Yokota Y,Morota T,Honda C,Ogawa Y,Torii M,Miyamoto H,Arai T,Hirata N,Iwasaki A,Nakamura R,Hiroi T,Sugihara T,Takeda H,Otake H,Pieters CM,Saiki K,Kitazato K,Abe M,Asada N,Demura H,Yamaguchi Y,Sasaki S,Kodama S,Terazono J,Shirao M,Yamaji A,Minami S,Akiyama H and Josset JL.2009.The global distribution of pure anorthosite on the Moon.Nature,461(7261):236-240
Plesa AC,Tosi N and Breuer D.2014.Can a fractionally crystallized magma ocean explain the thermo-chemical evolution of Mars?Earth and Planetary Science Letters,403:225-235
Richter FM,Watson EB,Mendybaev R,Dauphas N,Georg B,Watkins J and Valley J.2009.Isotopic fractionation of the major elements of molten basalt by chemical and thermal diffusion.Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,73(14):4250-4263
Shearer CK and Papike JJ.1999.Magmatic evolution of the Moon.American Mineralogist,84(10):1469-1494
Solomatov VS.2007.Magma oceans and primordial mantle differentiation.In:Stevenson DJ(ed.).Treatise on Geophysics.Amstendam:Elsevier
Solomon SC and Longhi J.1977.Magma oceanography 1:Thermal evolution.In:Proceedings of the 8 Lunar and Planetary Science Conference.Houston,TX;583-599
Soret C.1879.Concentrations differences d'une dissolution dont deux parties sont 6 des temperatures differentes.Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles,2;48-61
Sun ZJ,Zhang XY,Huang H and Chen HQ.2007.The development and application of solubility parameters.China Rubber Industry,54(1):54-58(in Chinese)
Taylor SR.1982.Planetary Science:A Lunar Perspective.Houston:Lunar and Planetary Institute
Tompkins S and Pieters CM.1999.Mineralogy of the lunar crust:Results from Clementine.Meteoritics&Planetary Science,34(1):25-41
Van der Stroom AP.1980.Analysis of the flow of goods and setting of control parameters in a network of stocks and production units.International Journal of Production Research,18(5):647-654
Walker D and Delong SE.1982.Soret separation of mid-ocean ridge basalt magma.Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology,79(3):231-240
Warren PH.1990.Lunar anorthosites and the magma-ocean plagioclaseflotation hypothesis;Importance of FeO enrichment in the parent magma.American Mineralogist,75(1-2);46-58
Wood JA,Dickey JS,Marvin UB and Powell BN.1970.Lunar anorthosites and a geophysical model of the Moon.In:Proceedings of the Apollo 11 Lunar Science Conference.Houston,TX,1:965-988
Wood JA.1986.Moon over Mauna Loa;A review of hypotheses of formation of earth's moon.Houston.In:Proceedings of Origin of the Moon Conference.Houston,TX:Lunar and Planetary Institute
Xu YK.2014.The evolution of Lunar magma ocean and constraint on the volatiles concentration of magma.Ph.D.Dissertation.Beijing;University of Chinese Academy of Sciences(in Chinese)
Xu YK,Zhu D and Wang SJ.2014.Constraints on volatile concentrations of pre-emptive lunar magma.Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors,229:55-60
Yin QZ,Jacobsen SB,Yamashita K,Blichert TJ,Telouk P and Albarede F.2002.A short timescale for terrestrial planet formation from Hf-W chronometry of meteorites.Nature,418(6901):949-952
Zahnle KJ,Kasting JF and Pollack JB.1988.Evolution of a steam atmosphere during earth's accretion.Icarus,74(1):62-97
Zhang YX.2010.Geochemical Kinetics.Beijing:Higher Education Press(in Chinese)
Zhu D,Wang SJ and Zhu CM.2010.Differentiation of the lunar magma ocean and formation of the lunar crust.Geochimica,39(1):63-72(in Chinese with English abstract)
胡森,林杨挺,张建超,郝佳龙,冯璐,赵旭晁,杨蔚.2012.月球贫水:来自月球陨石的证据.见:第十届全国月球科学与比较行星学陨石学与天体化学学术研讨会会议论文集.桂林:中国空间科学学会
林杨挺.2010.月球形成和演化的关键科学问题.地球化学,39(1):1-10
孙志娟,张心亚,黄洪,陈焕钦.2007.溶解度参数的发展及应用.橡胶工业,54(1):54-58
许英奎.2014.月球岩浆洋演化与岩浆挥发分含量的制约.博士学位论文.北京:中国科学院大学
张有学.2010.地球化学动力学.北京:高等教育出版社
朱丹,王世杰,朱成明.2010.岩浆洋分异与月壳.地球化学,39(1):63-72
Agnor CB,Canup RM and Levison HF.1999.On the character and consequences of large impacts in the late stage of terrestrial planet formation.Icarus,142(1):219-237
Alibert C,Norman MD and Mcculloch MT.1994.An ancient Sm-Nd age for a ferroan noritic anorthosite clast from lunar breccia 67016.Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,58(13):2921-2926
Borg LE,Norman M,Nyquist L,Bogard D,Snyder G,Taylor L and Lindstrom M.1999.Isotopic studies of ferroan anorthosite 62236:A young lunar crustal rock from a light rare-earth-element-depleted source.Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,63(17):2679-2691
Borg LE,Connelly JN,Boyet M and Carlson RW.2011.Chronological evidence that the Moon is either young or did not have a global magma ocean.Nature,477(7362):70-72
Bowen NL.1921.Diffusion in silicate melts.The Journal of Geology,29(4):295-317
Chambers JE.2004.Planetary accretion in the inner Solar System.Earth and Planetary Science Letters,223(3-4):241-252
Chambers JE.2014.Planet formation.In:Holland HD and Turekian HK(eds.).Treatise on Geochemistry.2~(nd)Edition.Oxford:Elsevier,55-72
Elkins-Tanton LT,Van Orman JA,Hager BH and Grove TL.2002.Reexamination of the lunar magma ocean cumulate overturn hypothesis:Melting or mixing is required.Earth and Planetary Science Letters,196(3-4):239-249
Elkins-Tanton LT.2008.Linked magma ocean solidification and atmospheric growth for Earth and Mars.Earth and Planetary Science Letters,271(1-4):181-191
Elkins-Tanton LT.2012.Magma oceans in the inner solar system.Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences,40(1):113-139
Elkins-Tanton LT.2013.Planetary science:Evolutionary dichotomy for rocky planets.Nature,497(7451):570-572
Genda H and Abe Y.2003.Survival of a proto-atmosphere through the stage of giant impacts:The mechanical aspects.Icarus,164(1):149-162
Genda H and Abe Y.2005.Enhanced atmospheric loss on protoplanets at the giant impact phase in the presence of oceans.Nature,433(7028):842-844
Ghiorso MS and Sack RO.1995.Chemical mass transfer in magmatic processes IV.A revised and internally consistent thermodynamic model for the interpolation and extrapolation of liquid-solid equilibria in magmatic systems at elevated temperatures and pressures.Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology,119(2-3):197-212
Ghiorso MS,Hirschmann MM,Reiners PW and KressⅢVC.2002.The pMELTS:A revision of MELTS for improved calculation of phase relations and major element partitioning related to partial melting of the mantle to 3GPa.Geochemistry,Geophysics,Geosystems,3(5):1-35
Glazner AF.1994.Foundering of mafic plutons and density stratification of continental-crust.Geology,22(5):435-438
Gross J,Treiman AH and Mercer CN.2014.Lunar feldspathic meteorites:Constraints on the geology of the lunar highlands,and the origin of the lunar crust.Earth and Planetary Science Letters,388:318-328
Hamano K,Abe Y and Genda H.2013.Emergence of two types of terrestrial planet on solidification of magma ocean.Nature,497(7451):607-610
Hauri EH,Saal AE,Rutherford MJ and Van Orman JA.2015.Water in the Moon's interior:Truth and consequences.Earth and Planetary Science Letters,409:252-264
Hofmeister AM.1983.Effect of a hadean terrestrial magma ocean on crust and mantle evolution.Journal of Geophysical Research,88(B6):4963-4983
Hu S,Lin YT,Zhang JC,Hao JL,Feng L,Zhao XC and Yang W.2012.Lack of water:The proof from lunar meteorolite.In:The National 10~(th)the Moon and the Comparative Planetology,Meteorites and Cosmochemistry Conference.Guilin:CSSR(in Chinese)
Huang F,Lundstrom CC,Glessner J,Ianno A,Boudreau A,Li JF,Ferre EC,Marshak S and DeFrates J.2009.Chemical and isotopic fractionation of wet andesite in a temperature gradient:Experiments and models suggesting a new mechanism of magma differentiation.Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,73(3):729-749
Johnson TE,Brown M,Kaus BJ and VanTongeren JA.2014.Delamination and recycling of Archaean crust caused by gravitational instabilities.Nature Geoscience,7(1):47-52
Keszthelyi L,Jaeger WL,Turtle EP,Milazzo M and Radebaugh J.2004.A post-Galileo view of Io's interior.Icarus,169(1):271-286
Lainey V,Arlot JE,Karatekin(O|¨)and Van Hoolst T.2009.Strong tidal dissipation in Io and Jupiter from astrometric observations.Nature,459(7249):957-959
Lesher CE and Walker D.1988.Cumulate maturation and melt migration in a temperature gradient.Journal of Geophysical Research,93(B9):10295-10311
Lewis DA.2000.Anorthosites.Springer
Lin YT.2010.Key issues of the formation and evolution of the Moon.Geochimica,39(1):1-10(in Chinese with English abstract)
Longhi J and Pan V.1988.A reconnaisance study of phase boundaries in low-alkali basaltic liquids.Journal of Petrology,29(1):115-147
Longhi J.2003.A new view of lunar ferroan anorthosites:Postmagma ocean petrogenesis.Journal of Geophysical Research,108(E8):5083
Namur O,Charlier B,Toplis MJ and Auwera JV.2012.Prediction of plagioclase-melt equilibria in anhydrous silicate melts at 1-atm.Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology,163(1):133-150
Ohtake M,Matsunaga T,Haruyama J,Yokota Y,Morota T,Honda C,Ogawa Y,Torii M,Miyamoto H,Arai T,Hirata N,Iwasaki A,Nakamura R,Hiroi T,Sugihara T,Takeda H,Otake H,Pieters CM,Saiki K,Kitazato K,Abe M,Asada N,Demura H,Yamaguchi Y,Sasaki S,Kodama S,Terazono J,Shirao M,Yamaji A,Minami S,Akiyama H and Josset JL.2009.The global distribution of pure anorthosite on the Moon.Nature,461(7261):236-240
Plesa AC,Tosi N and Breuer D.2014.Can a fractionally crystallized magma ocean explain the thermo-chemical evolution of Mars?Earth and Planetary Science Letters,403:225-235
Richter FM,Watson EB,Mendybaev R,Dauphas N,Georg B,Watkins J and Valley J.2009.Isotopic fractionation of the major elements of molten basalt by chemical and thermal diffusion.Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,73(14):4250-4263
Shearer CK and Papike JJ.1999.Magmatic evolution of the Moon.American Mineralogist,84(10):1469-1494
Solomatov VS.2007.Magma oceans and primordial mantle differentiation.In:Stevenson DJ(ed.).Treatise on Geophysics.Amstendam:Elsevier
Solomon SC and Longhi J.1977.Magma oceanography 1:Thermal evolution.In:Proceedings of the 8 Lunar and Planetary Science Conference.Houston,TX;583-599
Soret C.1879.Concentrations differences d'une dissolution dont deux parties sont 6 des temperatures differentes.Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles,2;48-61
Sun ZJ,Zhang XY,Huang H and Chen HQ.2007.The development and application of solubility parameters.China Rubber Industry,54(1):54-58(in Chinese)
Taylor SR.1982.Planetary Science:A Lunar Perspective.Houston:Lunar and Planetary Institute
Tompkins S and Pieters CM.1999.Mineralogy of the lunar crust:Results from Clementine.Meteoritics&Planetary Science,34(1):25-41
Van der Stroom AP.1980.Analysis of the flow of goods and setting of control parameters in a network of stocks and production units.International Journal of Production Research,18(5):647-654
Walker D and Delong SE.1982.Soret separation of mid-ocean ridge basalt magma.Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology,79(3):231-240
Warren PH.1990.Lunar anorthosites and the magma-ocean plagioclaseflotation hypothesis;Importance of FeO enrichment in the parent magma.American Mineralogist,75(1-2);46-58
Wood JA,Dickey JS,Marvin UB and Powell BN.1970.Lunar anorthosites and a geophysical model of the Moon.In:Proceedings of the Apollo 11 Lunar Science Conference.Houston,TX,1:965-988
Wood JA.1986.Moon over Mauna Loa;A review of hypotheses of formation of earth's moon.Houston.In:Proceedings of Origin of the Moon Conference.Houston,TX:Lunar and Planetary Institute
Xu YK.2014.The evolution of Lunar magma ocean and constraint on the volatiles concentration of magma.Ph.D.Dissertation.Beijing;University of Chinese Academy of Sciences(in Chinese)
Xu YK,Zhu D and Wang SJ.2014.Constraints on volatile concentrations of pre-emptive lunar magma.Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors,229:55-60
Yin QZ,Jacobsen SB,Yamashita K,Blichert TJ,Telouk P and Albarede F.2002.A short timescale for terrestrial planet formation from Hf-W chronometry of meteorites.Nature,418(6901):949-952
Zahnle KJ,Kasting JF and Pollack JB.1988.Evolution of a steam atmosphere during earth's accretion.Icarus,74(1):62-97
Zhang YX.2010.Geochemical Kinetics.Beijing:Higher Education Press(in Chinese)
Zhu D,Wang SJ and Zhu CM.2010.Differentiation of the lunar magma ocean and formation of the lunar crust.Geochimica,39(1):63-72(in Chinese with English abstract)
胡森,林杨挺,张建超,郝佳龙,冯璐,赵旭晁,杨蔚.2012.月球贫水:来自月球陨石的证据.见:第十届全国月球科学与比较行星学陨石学与天体化学学术研讨会会议论文集.桂林:中国空间科学学会
林杨挺.2010.月球形成和演化的关键科学问题.地球化学,39(1):1-10
孙志娟,张心亚,黄洪,陈焕钦.2007.溶解度参数的发展及应用.橡胶工业,54(1):54-58
许英奎.2014.月球岩浆洋演化与岩浆挥发分含量的制约.博士学位论文.北京:中国科学院大学
张有学.2010.地球化学动力学.北京:高等教育出版社
朱丹,王世杰,朱成明.2010.岩浆洋分异与月壳.地球化学,39(1):63-72