欧洲多元文化主义反恐政策评析
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摘要
在当前民族、族群等次国家群体间关系为代表的社会异质性问题全球升温的背景下,相关政策设计需要以国家安全整体需求指引民族工作,以民族工作固基国家安全。欧洲从"9·11"事件以来的相关工作的经验教训值得我们重视。2005年左右,基于"本土恐怖主义"的威胁认知与欧洲多元文化主义社会治理传统,欧洲各国在"反恐怖主义激进化"政策下实现国家安全治理与国内族群政策的结合。这一政策并未实现其既定目标,其症结不在于工作思路的错误,而在于多元文化主义本身无法直接处理安全问题,相反,它需要一定的社会安全作为前提条件。2010年左右,欧洲主要国家实现了从"反激进化"向"反极端化"的政策升级,是对既有政策失误的有效修正。
引文
(1)Kenan Malik,"The Failure of Multiculturalism:Community Versus Society in Europe,”Foreign Affairs,no.2(2015),pp.21-32.
(2)伴随芬兰在2017年遭遇历史上第一次恐袭,欧洲遭遇过吉哈德主义恐袭的国家数量上升至18个:英国(英格兰、威尔士、苏格兰、北爱尔兰均发生过)、俄罗斯、法国、德国、土耳其、瑞典、意大利、比利时、奥地利、西班牙、芬兰、格鲁吉亚、保加利亚、荷兰、瑞士、马其顿、挪威、丹麦。
(3)但这些措施并不能否认,历史上所有帝国都是建立在对人类多样性否定的基础上的。这一观点,是我们对现代社会与前现代社会所遭遇问题与出路进行比较研究的重要起点。关凯:《族群政治》,北京:中央民族大学出版社,2007年。
(1)[加拿大]威尔·金里卡:《多民族国家中的认同政治》,刘曙辉译,《马克思主义与现实》2010年第2期。
(2)事实上,至少对于欧洲而言,在多元文化主义的多种政策形式中,仅是涉及第三类移民群体的政策面临严峻的挑战、乃至后退。换言之,在当代欧洲,多元文化主义政策只是在一些方面面临严重反冲力,而非整体“死亡”,有关多元文化主义“死亡”的报告存在严重的夸张。
(3)Kenan Malik,"Europe's Dangerous Multiculturalism:Why the Continent Fails Minority Groups,"https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/westem-europe/2015-12-08/europes-dangerous-multiculturalism,2018年5月30日。
(1)宋全成:《族群分裂与宗教冲突:欧洲多元文化主义面临严峻挑战》,《求是学刊》2014年第6期。
(2)李明欢:《多元文化主义在欧洲的理想与困境——以西欧穆斯林移民社群为案例的分析》,《国外社会科学》2010年第6期。
(3)Kundnani A,"Radicalization:the journey of a concept,"Race&Class,no.3(2012),pp.3-25.
(4)其他任何关于恐怖主义产生原因和发展过程的讨论都被认为“是在为恐怖主义寻找合理性依据”。Johnson R,"Defending ways of life:the(anti-)terrorist rhetorics of Bush and Blair,"Theory,Culture&Society,no.4(2002),pp.211-231.
(5)Githens-Mazer J.,Lambert R,"Why conventional wisdom on radicalization fails:the persistence of a failed discourse,"International Affairs,no.4(2010),pp.889-901.
(6)Squire V,"Integration with diversity in modern Britain:New Labour on nationality,immigration and asylum,"Journal of Political Ideologies,no.4(2005),pp.51-74.
(1)Kenan Malik,"The Failure of Multiculturalism:Community Versus Society in Europe,"Foreign Affairs,no.2(2015),pp.21-32.
(2)同上。
(3)Kenan Malik,"Europe's Dangerous Multiculturalism:Why the Continent Fails Minority Groups,"https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/western-europe/2015-12-08/europes-dangerous-multiculturalism,2018年5月30日。
(4)Manni Crone and Martin Harrow,"Homegrown Terrorism in the West,"Terrorism and Political Violence,vol.23,no.4(2001),pp.522.
(1)Lasse Lindekilde,"Introduction:Assessing the Effectiveness of Counter-radicalisation Policies in Northwestern Europe,"Critical Studies on Terrorism,vol.5,no.3(2012),pp.343.
(2)Alex P.Schmid,Radicalisation,De-Radicalisation,Counter-Radicalisation:A Conceptual Discussion and Literature Review,Hague:International Centre for Counter-Terrorism,Research Paper,2013.
(3)U.S.Department of State,Country Reports on Terrorism 2008,United States Department of State Publication Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism,2009.
(4)Angel Rabasa and Stacie Pettyjohn,Deradicalizing Islamist Extremists,Santa Monica:RAND Corporation,2010.
(5)Syed Mansoob Murshed,&Sara Pavan,"Identity and islamic radicalization in western europe,"Civil Wars,vol.13,no.3(2011),pp.259-279.
(1)Marc Sageman,Understanding Terror Networks,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2004.
(2)Angel Rabasa and Stacie Pettyjohn,Deradicalizing Islamist Extremists,Santa Monica:RAND Corporation,2010.英国官方关于这一观点的阐述可参见HM Government,Prevent Strategy,2011,pp.23-37.
(3)Kenan Malik,"The Failure of Multiculturalism:Community Versus Society in Europe,”Foreign Affairs,no.2(2015),pp.21-32.
(4)当前出现一个趋势,即越来越多的学者开始讨论伊斯兰教与暴力极端之间的关系。参见:Ayaan Hirsi Ali,"A Problem from Heaven:Why the United States Should Back Islam's Reformation,"Foreign Affairs,no.2(2015),pp.36-45;William McCants,"Islamic Scripture Is Not the Problem:And Funding Muslim Reformers Is Not the Solution,”Foreign Affairs,no.2(2015),pp.46-52.
(5)HM Government,Prevent Strategy,2011.
(1)Kenan Malik,"The Failure of Multiculturalism:Community Versus Society in Europe,"Foreign Affairs,no.2(2015),pp.21-32.
(2)Raymond Taras.Xenophobia and Islamophobia in Europe.Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press,2012.
(3)Angel Rabasa and Stacie Pettyjohn.Deradicalizing Islamist Extremists.Santa Monica:RAND Corporation,2010.事实上,虽然“消除伊斯兰主义极端主义”总是被提及,但是现有欧洲各国反激进化政策文件中,并没有任何关于反意识形态工作具体应该包含哪些内容和步骤的说明。
(4)Peter O'Brien,The Muslim Question in Europe:Political Controversies and Public Philosophies,Philadelphia:Temple University Press,2016.
(5)Virginie Andre,"Merah and Breivik:A Reflection of the European Identity Crisis,"Islam&Christian-muslim Relations,vol.26,no.2(2015),pp.189.
(6)Peter O'Brien.The Muslim Question in Europe:Political Controversies and Public Philosophies,Philadelphia:Temple University Press,2016.
(1)Peter O'Brien.The Muslim Question in Europe:Politic:Controversies and Public Philosophies,Philadelphia:Temple University Press,2016.
(2)Sara Wallace Goodman,Immigration and Membership Politics in Western Europe,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2014,pp.95-113.
(3)英国“预防暴力极端主义项目”主管部长就曾对“反激进化”工作作出非常直白的多元文化主义式的解释:“在社群中心设立强有力的、而且得到有效管理的清真寺和穆斯林组织,能够更好地帮助我们抵御一些支持伊斯兰暴力极端主义的组织绑架和挟持社群内的穆斯林(的思想)。因此,政府与穆斯林社群接触有两个目标:一方面,帮助本国穆斯林提升对极端化的免疫力,另一方面,则是实现对于穆斯林宗教监控(religious observance)的常规化”。这种观点其实己经等同于“嫌疑群体”。参见Hisham D.Aidi,Rebel Music:Race,Empire,and the New Muslim Youth Culture,New York:Pantheon Books,2014.
(4)Max Taylor,P.M.Currie,Donald Holbrook.ed.,Extreme Right Wing Political Violence and Terrorism,London:Bloomsbury Academic,2013.
(1)Lasse Lindekilde,“Introduction:Assessing the Effectiveness of Counter-radicalisation Policies in Northwestern Europe,”Critical Studies on Terrorism,vol.5,no.3(2012),pp.339.
(2)笔者认为,多元文化主义政策在“反极端化”阶段不再被寄予安全治理的期望,是同时期“多元文化主义已死”政治话语的真正意涵。
(3)[加拿大]威尔·金里卡:《多元文化主义的兴衰?关于多样性社会中接纳和包容的新争论》,《国际社会科学杂志(中文版)》2011年第1期。
(1)Lizzie Dearden,"Italy to train Muslim imams on constitution to'create climate of tolerance'and fight radicalisation,"Independent,no.1(2017),pp.1-13.
(2)Walter Reich.Origins of Terrorism.Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1998.
(3)National Counter Terrorism Security Office,Project Griffin:Protect yourself,your stafff,your business and your community.2016.
(2)伴随芬兰在2017年遭遇历史上第一次恐袭,欧洲遭遇过吉哈德主义恐袭的国家数量上升至18个:英国(英格兰、威尔士、苏格兰、北爱尔兰均发生过)、俄罗斯、法国、德国、土耳其、瑞典、意大利、比利时、奥地利、西班牙、芬兰、格鲁吉亚、保加利亚、荷兰、瑞士、马其顿、挪威、丹麦。
(3)但这些措施并不能否认,历史上所有帝国都是建立在对人类多样性否定的基础上的。这一观点,是我们对现代社会与前现代社会所遭遇问题与出路进行比较研究的重要起点。关凯:《族群政治》,北京:中央民族大学出版社,2007年。
(1)[加拿大]威尔·金里卡:《多民族国家中的认同政治》,刘曙辉译,《马克思主义与现实》2010年第2期。
(2)事实上,至少对于欧洲而言,在多元文化主义的多种政策形式中,仅是涉及第三类移民群体的政策面临严峻的挑战、乃至后退。换言之,在当代欧洲,多元文化主义政策只是在一些方面面临严重反冲力,而非整体“死亡”,有关多元文化主义“死亡”的报告存在严重的夸张。
(3)Kenan Malik,"Europe's Dangerous Multiculturalism:Why the Continent Fails Minority Groups,"https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/westem-europe/2015-12-08/europes-dangerous-multiculturalism,2018年5月30日。
(1)宋全成:《族群分裂与宗教冲突:欧洲多元文化主义面临严峻挑战》,《求是学刊》2014年第6期。
(2)李明欢:《多元文化主义在欧洲的理想与困境——以西欧穆斯林移民社群为案例的分析》,《国外社会科学》2010年第6期。
(3)Kundnani A,"Radicalization:the journey of a concept,"Race&Class,no.3(2012),pp.3-25.
(4)其他任何关于恐怖主义产生原因和发展过程的讨论都被认为“是在为恐怖主义寻找合理性依据”。Johnson R,"Defending ways of life:the(anti-)terrorist rhetorics of Bush and Blair,"Theory,Culture&Society,no.4(2002),pp.211-231.
(5)Githens-Mazer J.,Lambert R,"Why conventional wisdom on radicalization fails:the persistence of a failed discourse,"International Affairs,no.4(2010),pp.889-901.
(6)Squire V,"Integration with diversity in modern Britain:New Labour on nationality,immigration and asylum,"Journal of Political Ideologies,no.4(2005),pp.51-74.
(1)Kenan Malik,"The Failure of Multiculturalism:Community Versus Society in Europe,"Foreign Affairs,no.2(2015),pp.21-32.
(2)同上。
(3)Kenan Malik,"Europe's Dangerous Multiculturalism:Why the Continent Fails Minority Groups,"https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/western-europe/2015-12-08/europes-dangerous-multiculturalism,2018年5月30日。
(4)Manni Crone and Martin Harrow,"Homegrown Terrorism in the West,"Terrorism and Political Violence,vol.23,no.4(2001),pp.522.
(1)Lasse Lindekilde,"Introduction:Assessing the Effectiveness of Counter-radicalisation Policies in Northwestern Europe,"Critical Studies on Terrorism,vol.5,no.3(2012),pp.343.
(2)Alex P.Schmid,Radicalisation,De-Radicalisation,Counter-Radicalisation:A Conceptual Discussion and Literature Review,Hague:International Centre for Counter-Terrorism,Research Paper,2013.
(3)U.S.Department of State,Country Reports on Terrorism 2008,United States Department of State Publication Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism,2009.
(4)Angel Rabasa and Stacie Pettyjohn,Deradicalizing Islamist Extremists,Santa Monica:RAND Corporation,2010.
(5)Syed Mansoob Murshed,&Sara Pavan,"Identity and islamic radicalization in western europe,"Civil Wars,vol.13,no.3(2011),pp.259-279.
(1)Marc Sageman,Understanding Terror Networks,Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2004.
(2)Angel Rabasa and Stacie Pettyjohn,Deradicalizing Islamist Extremists,Santa Monica:RAND Corporation,2010.英国官方关于这一观点的阐述可参见HM Government,Prevent Strategy,2011,pp.23-37.
(3)Kenan Malik,"The Failure of Multiculturalism:Community Versus Society in Europe,”Foreign Affairs,no.2(2015),pp.21-32.
(4)当前出现一个趋势,即越来越多的学者开始讨论伊斯兰教与暴力极端之间的关系。参见:Ayaan Hirsi Ali,"A Problem from Heaven:Why the United States Should Back Islam's Reformation,"Foreign Affairs,no.2(2015),pp.36-45;William McCants,"Islamic Scripture Is Not the Problem:And Funding Muslim Reformers Is Not the Solution,”Foreign Affairs,no.2(2015),pp.46-52.
(5)HM Government,Prevent Strategy,2011.
(1)Kenan Malik,"The Failure of Multiculturalism:Community Versus Society in Europe,"Foreign Affairs,no.2(2015),pp.21-32.
(2)Raymond Taras.Xenophobia and Islamophobia in Europe.Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press,2012.
(3)Angel Rabasa and Stacie Pettyjohn.Deradicalizing Islamist Extremists.Santa Monica:RAND Corporation,2010.事实上,虽然“消除伊斯兰主义极端主义”总是被提及,但是现有欧洲各国反激进化政策文件中,并没有任何关于反意识形态工作具体应该包含哪些内容和步骤的说明。
(4)Peter O'Brien,The Muslim Question in Europe:Political Controversies and Public Philosophies,Philadelphia:Temple University Press,2016.
(5)Virginie Andre,"Merah and Breivik:A Reflection of the European Identity Crisis,"Islam&Christian-muslim Relations,vol.26,no.2(2015),pp.189.
(6)Peter O'Brien.The Muslim Question in Europe:Political Controversies and Public Philosophies,Philadelphia:Temple University Press,2016.
(1)Peter O'Brien.The Muslim Question in Europe:Politic:Controversies and Public Philosophies,Philadelphia:Temple University Press,2016.
(2)Sara Wallace Goodman,Immigration and Membership Politics in Western Europe,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2014,pp.95-113.
(3)英国“预防暴力极端主义项目”主管部长就曾对“反激进化”工作作出非常直白的多元文化主义式的解释:“在社群中心设立强有力的、而且得到有效管理的清真寺和穆斯林组织,能够更好地帮助我们抵御一些支持伊斯兰暴力极端主义的组织绑架和挟持社群内的穆斯林(的思想)。因此,政府与穆斯林社群接触有两个目标:一方面,帮助本国穆斯林提升对极端化的免疫力,另一方面,则是实现对于穆斯林宗教监控(religious observance)的常规化”。这种观点其实己经等同于“嫌疑群体”。参见Hisham D.Aidi,Rebel Music:Race,Empire,and the New Muslim Youth Culture,New York:Pantheon Books,2014.
(4)Max Taylor,P.M.Currie,Donald Holbrook.ed.,Extreme Right Wing Political Violence and Terrorism,London:Bloomsbury Academic,2013.
(1)Lasse Lindekilde,“Introduction:Assessing the Effectiveness of Counter-radicalisation Policies in Northwestern Europe,”Critical Studies on Terrorism,vol.5,no.3(2012),pp.339.
(2)笔者认为,多元文化主义政策在“反极端化”阶段不再被寄予安全治理的期望,是同时期“多元文化主义已死”政治话语的真正意涵。
(3)[加拿大]威尔·金里卡:《多元文化主义的兴衰?关于多样性社会中接纳和包容的新争论》,《国际社会科学杂志(中文版)》2011年第1期。
(1)Lizzie Dearden,"Italy to train Muslim imams on constitution to'create climate of tolerance'and fight radicalisation,"Independent,no.1(2017),pp.1-13.
(2)Walter Reich.Origins of Terrorism.Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1998.
(3)National Counter Terrorism Security Office,Project Griffin:Protect yourself,your stafff,your business and your community.2016.
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