论澳大利亚与印尼安全合作的制度化及其限度
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摘要
自20世纪70年代以来,澳大利亚与印尼在安全领域逐渐建立了制度化合作,双方关系更加对等,安全合作的广度和深度都有较大的拓展。尽管如此,两国政治关系却并不稳定,有时会出现较大的分歧和矛盾,导致安全合作中止、停顿。本文发现,虽然澳大利亚和印尼推进了安全合作的制度化,但两国有时候会采取损害对方核心利益的行为,这种损害涉及领土和主权利益,使制度化的安全合作受到消极影响。
Since the 1970 s, institutionalized cooperation has been gradually established between Australia and Indonesia in the field of national security.Such cooperation aimed for a mutually-equal relationship, and has been greatly widened and deepened to date. Nevertheless, the political relationship between these two countries are not stable. Major differences and contradictions in this area have led to the suspension and interruption in security cooperation. Although Australia and Indonesia have promoted the institutionalization of security cooperation, this paper finds that they have never managed to develop such relationship in a continuous and positive manner. During their cooperation, both countries have taken actions that are indeed detrimental to each other.s core interests,including territorial and sovereign interests, which negatively affected the institutionalized cooperation.
Since the 1970 s, institutionalized cooperation has been gradually established between Australia and Indonesia in the field of national security.Such cooperation aimed for a mutually-equal relationship, and has been greatly widened and deepened to date. Nevertheless, the political relationship between these two countries are not stable. Major differences and contradictions in this area have led to the suspension and interruption in security cooperation. Although Australia and Indonesia have promoted the institutionalization of security cooperation, this paper finds that they have never managed to develop such relationship in a continuous and positive manner. During their cooperation, both countries have taken actions that are indeed detrimental to each other.s core interests,including territorial and sovereign interests, which negatively affected the institutionalized cooperation.
引文
(1)李佳彬:《印尼对澳大利亚说“不”》,载《光明日报》2013年11月23日。
(2)印尼建国五项基本原则(潘查希拉,Pancasila)包括信仰神道、人道主义、民族主义、民主主义、社会公正。
(3)姜潭:《澳大利亚与印尼,近邻为何反目?》,载《中国国防报》2017年1月13日。
(4)关于制度概念,国际关系学界仍缺乏广泛的共识。罗伯特?基欧汉认为,国际制度应有广义与狭义之分,前者包括宗教、国家主权、战争等更为普遍的形式,后者指的是国际核不扩散机制、关贸总协定这样的具体规则体系。参见Robert O. Keohane,“International Institutions:Two Approaches”,International Studies Quarterly,Vol.32, No.4,1988, pp.382-383.本文主要采用基欧汉的观点,认为国际制度主要指在国际体系中确立国家角色、约束国家行为的规则集合,可能以实体组织出现,也可能是非实体的机制或惯例。
(5)Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony:Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy,(Princeton University Press, 1984), p.88.
(6)John J. Mearsheimer,"The False Promise of International Institutions,"International Security,Vol. 19, No. 3, 1995, p.18.
(7)Ernst B. Haas,"Words Can Hurt you;Or,Who Said what to Whom about Regimes,"International Organization, Vol. 36, No. 2, 1982, p.241.
(8)在本文中,“制度化合作”指的是建立在制度基础上的合作,不仅反映了国家间合作的类型,也表示建立制度促进合作的过程。“制度化”将制度视为一个既定的整体性概念,它不涉及制度本身程度的递进,而是国家行为在制度影响下逐渐变化的过程。关于制度化合作的研究,参见惠耕田:《制度、制度化与国际合作的再解释》,载《国际论坛》2009年第4期,第61页。
(9)Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony:Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy,p.63.
(10)Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony:Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy,p.79.
(11)本文对国家核心利益的界定,来自汉斯·摩根索的观点。他认为,国家利益只能根据国家安全来界定,国家安全只能界定为领土完整、社会制度稳定;国家安全是外交必须捍卫的底线。参见汉斯·摩根索:《国际纵横策论:争强权,求和平》,上海译文出版社1995年版,第684页。关于国家利益的分类,参见阎学通:《中国国家利益分析》,天津人民出版社1996年版,第23-25页。另外,1996年美国国家利益委员会在一份有关美国国家利益的报告中,也把美国的国家利益划分为根本利益(Vital Interests)、极端重要利益(Extremely Important Interests)、重要利益(Just Important Interests)、次要利益(Less Important Interests)等不同类型。参见Robert Ellsworth et al,Co-Chairs,"America's National Interests:A Report from the Commission on America's National Interests, 1996,Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs,Harvard Kennedy School,p. 17. https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/legacy/files/americas_interests.pdf
(12)防务合作项目并非针对印尼设立,而是澳大利亚与周边国家进行防务合作的一种合作框架。
(13) Parliamentary Research Service, Research Paper Number 4, 1993:Australia's Defence Cooperation Program, Parliamentary of Commonwealth of Australia, 1993, Appendices, pp.23-24.
(14) The Bali Process,"About the Bali Process",https://www.baliprocess.net/
(15) Bilveer Singh, Defense Relations Between Australia and Indonesia in the Post-Cold war era,(Greenwood Press, 2002), p.66.
(16) Gary Brown et al,"The Australian-Indonesian Security Agreement-Issues and Implications",Research Paper No. 25, http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/RP9596/96rp25.
(17) Alan Du Pont,"The Australia-Indonesia Security Agreement,"The Australian Quarterly, Vol.68, No. 2, 1996, p. 51.
(18) Bilveer Singh, Defense Relations Between Australia and Indonesia in the Post-Cold war era,(Greenwood Press 2002), p.70.
(19) Bilveer Singh, Defense Relations Between Australia and Indonesia in the Post-Cold war era,(Greenwood Press, 2002), p.71.
(20)该条约全称为《印度尼西亚民主共和国——澳大利亚关于安全合作框架的协议》(Agreement Between the Republic of Indonesia and Australia on the Framework for Security Cooperation),因签署地为印尼的龙目岛因此也称为《龙目条约》(The Treaty of Lombok)。
(21) Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade:Agreement Between the Republic of Indonesia and Australia on the Framework for Security Cooperation, https://dfat.gov.au/geo/indonesia/Pages/agreementbetween-the-republic-of-indonesia-and-australia-on-the-frame work-for-security-cooperation.aspx
(22) Bilveer Singh, Defense Relations Between Australia and Indonesia in the Post-Cold war era,(Greenwood Press, 2002), p.65.
(23) Jakarta Centre for Law Enforcement Cooperation,"Aboat JCLEC,"https://www.jclec.org/about?Itemid=28&id=14&limit=l&limitstart=0&option=com_content&task=view
(24) Roberts Christopher and Habir Ahmad,"Australia's Relations with Indonesia:Progress despite Economic and Socio-cultural Constraints,"National Security College Issue Brief, 2012, p.87.
(25) ABC News,"Indonesia-Australia alliance:The state of defence cooperation,",http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-11-20/indonesia-australia-alliance-defence-cooperation/5106256
(26) Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Indonesia, Vision of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Indonesia,"https://www.kemlu.go.id/en/kebi.jakan/landasan-visi-misi-polugri/Pages/Vision-of-theMinistry-of-Foreign-Affairs-of-Indonesia.aspx
(27) Rizal Sukma,"The Evolution of Indonesia's Foreign Policy:An Indonesian View,", Asian Surveiy, Vol. 35, No. 3, 1995, p. 308.
(28)丹迪·苏森托:《印度尼西亚新国防战略解析——兼谈与中国在地区安全方面的合作》,载《东南亚研究》2007年第5期,第4页。
(29) Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade:In the National Interest:Australia's Foreign and trade Policy White Paper, Commonwealth of Australia, 1997, p.1.
(30) Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade:In the National Interest:Australia's Foreign and trade Policy White Paper, Commonwealth of Australia, 1997, p.11.
(31)汪诗明:《20世纪澳大利亚外交史》,北京大学出版社2003年版,第187页。
(32) Peter Chalk,"Australia and Indonesia:Rebuilding Relations after East Timor,"Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol. 23, No. 2, 2001, pp. 233-253.
(33)详细内容可参见:James Cotton,East Timor,Australia and Regional Order:Intervention and Its Aftermath in Southeast Asia, London:Routledge, 2004.
(34) AzhariSetiawan,"United States Election and Indonesia's National Interest,"Republika, https://www.republika.co.id/berita/en/speak-out/16/02/26/o35s5t317-united-states-election-and-indonesias-national-interest
(35) David Jenkins,"After Marcos,Now for the Soeharto Billions",Sydney Morning Herald,April10,1986.
(36) Andrew Phillips and Eric Hiariej,"Beyond the'Bandung divide'? Assessing the scope and limits of Australia-Indonesia security cooperation", Australian Journeal of International Affairs, Vol.70,No.4., 2016, p.433.
(37)《澳大利亚将与印尼加强军事等多领域合作》,新华网,2017年7月25日,http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2017-02/26/c_1120531215.htm.
(2)印尼建国五项基本原则(潘查希拉,Pancasila)包括信仰神道、人道主义、民族主义、民主主义、社会公正。
(3)姜潭:《澳大利亚与印尼,近邻为何反目?》,载《中国国防报》2017年1月13日。
(4)关于制度概念,国际关系学界仍缺乏广泛的共识。罗伯特?基欧汉认为,国际制度应有广义与狭义之分,前者包括宗教、国家主权、战争等更为普遍的形式,后者指的是国际核不扩散机制、关贸总协定这样的具体规则体系。参见Robert O. Keohane,“International Institutions:Two Approaches”,International Studies Quarterly,Vol.32, No.4,1988, pp.382-383.本文主要采用基欧汉的观点,认为国际制度主要指在国际体系中确立国家角色、约束国家行为的规则集合,可能以实体组织出现,也可能是非实体的机制或惯例。
(5)Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony:Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy,(Princeton University Press, 1984), p.88.
(6)John J. Mearsheimer,"The False Promise of International Institutions,"International Security,Vol. 19, No. 3, 1995, p.18.
(7)Ernst B. Haas,"Words Can Hurt you;Or,Who Said what to Whom about Regimes,"International Organization, Vol. 36, No. 2, 1982, p.241.
(8)在本文中,“制度化合作”指的是建立在制度基础上的合作,不仅反映了国家间合作的类型,也表示建立制度促进合作的过程。“制度化”将制度视为一个既定的整体性概念,它不涉及制度本身程度的递进,而是国家行为在制度影响下逐渐变化的过程。关于制度化合作的研究,参见惠耕田:《制度、制度化与国际合作的再解释》,载《国际论坛》2009年第4期,第61页。
(9)Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony:Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy,p.63.
(10)Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony:Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy,p.79.
(11)本文对国家核心利益的界定,来自汉斯·摩根索的观点。他认为,国家利益只能根据国家安全来界定,国家安全只能界定为领土完整、社会制度稳定;国家安全是外交必须捍卫的底线。参见汉斯·摩根索:《国际纵横策论:争强权,求和平》,上海译文出版社1995年版,第684页。关于国家利益的分类,参见阎学通:《中国国家利益分析》,天津人民出版社1996年版,第23-25页。另外,1996年美国国家利益委员会在一份有关美国国家利益的报告中,也把美国的国家利益划分为根本利益(Vital Interests)、极端重要利益(Extremely Important Interests)、重要利益(Just Important Interests)、次要利益(Less Important Interests)等不同类型。参见Robert Ellsworth et al,Co-Chairs,"America's National Interests:A Report from the Commission on America's National Interests, 1996,Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs,Harvard Kennedy School,p. 17. https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/legacy/files/americas_interests.pdf
(12)防务合作项目并非针对印尼设立,而是澳大利亚与周边国家进行防务合作的一种合作框架。
(13) Parliamentary Research Service, Research Paper Number 4, 1993:Australia's Defence Cooperation Program, Parliamentary of Commonwealth of Australia, 1993, Appendices, pp.23-24.
(14) The Bali Process,"About the Bali Process",https://www.baliprocess.net/
(15) Bilveer Singh, Defense Relations Between Australia and Indonesia in the Post-Cold war era,(Greenwood Press, 2002), p.66.
(16) Gary Brown et al,"The Australian-Indonesian Security Agreement-Issues and Implications",Research Paper No. 25, http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/RP9596/96rp25.
(17) Alan Du Pont,"The Australia-Indonesia Security Agreement,"The Australian Quarterly, Vol.68, No. 2, 1996, p. 51.
(18) Bilveer Singh, Defense Relations Between Australia and Indonesia in the Post-Cold war era,(Greenwood Press 2002), p.70.
(19) Bilveer Singh, Defense Relations Between Australia and Indonesia in the Post-Cold war era,(Greenwood Press, 2002), p.71.
(20)该条约全称为《印度尼西亚民主共和国——澳大利亚关于安全合作框架的协议》(Agreement Between the Republic of Indonesia and Australia on the Framework for Security Cooperation),因签署地为印尼的龙目岛因此也称为《龙目条约》(The Treaty of Lombok)。
(21) Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade:Agreement Between the Republic of Indonesia and Australia on the Framework for Security Cooperation, https://dfat.gov.au/geo/indonesia/Pages/agreementbetween-the-republic-of-indonesia-and-australia-on-the-frame work-for-security-cooperation.aspx
(22) Bilveer Singh, Defense Relations Between Australia and Indonesia in the Post-Cold war era,(Greenwood Press, 2002), p.65.
(23) Jakarta Centre for Law Enforcement Cooperation,"Aboat JCLEC,"https://www.jclec.org/about?Itemid=28&id=14&limit=l&limitstart=0&option=com_content&task=view
(24) Roberts Christopher and Habir Ahmad,"Australia's Relations with Indonesia:Progress despite Economic and Socio-cultural Constraints,"National Security College Issue Brief, 2012, p.87.
(25) ABC News,"Indonesia-Australia alliance:The state of defence cooperation,",http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-11-20/indonesia-australia-alliance-defence-cooperation/5106256
(26) Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Indonesia, Vision of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Indonesia,"https://www.kemlu.go.id/en/kebi.jakan/landasan-visi-misi-polugri/Pages/Vision-of-theMinistry-of-Foreign-Affairs-of-Indonesia.aspx
(27) Rizal Sukma,"The Evolution of Indonesia's Foreign Policy:An Indonesian View,", Asian Surveiy, Vol. 35, No. 3, 1995, p. 308.
(28)丹迪·苏森托:《印度尼西亚新国防战略解析——兼谈与中国在地区安全方面的合作》,载《东南亚研究》2007年第5期,第4页。
(29) Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade:In the National Interest:Australia's Foreign and trade Policy White Paper, Commonwealth of Australia, 1997, p.1.
(30) Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade:In the National Interest:Australia's Foreign and trade Policy White Paper, Commonwealth of Australia, 1997, p.11.
(31)汪诗明:《20世纪澳大利亚外交史》,北京大学出版社2003年版,第187页。
(32) Peter Chalk,"Australia and Indonesia:Rebuilding Relations after East Timor,"Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol. 23, No. 2, 2001, pp. 233-253.
(33)详细内容可参见:James Cotton,East Timor,Australia and Regional Order:Intervention and Its Aftermath in Southeast Asia, London:Routledge, 2004.
(34) AzhariSetiawan,"United States Election and Indonesia's National Interest,"Republika, https://www.republika.co.id/berita/en/speak-out/16/02/26/o35s5t317-united-states-election-and-indonesias-national-interest
(35) David Jenkins,"After Marcos,Now for the Soeharto Billions",Sydney Morning Herald,April10,1986.
(36) Andrew Phillips and Eric Hiariej,"Beyond the'Bandung divide'? Assessing the scope and limits of Australia-Indonesia security cooperation", Australian Journeal of International Affairs, Vol.70,No.4., 2016, p.433.
(37)《澳大利亚将与印尼加强军事等多领域合作》,新华网,2017年7月25日,http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2017-02/26/c_1120531215.htm.