对二语语法学习成效中年龄效应的元分析研究
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摘要
为探讨二语语法学习成效的年龄效应,以及学习环境、测试条件和测试任务对其的影响,本文采用元分析对相关研究进行整合和分析。基于早学者和晚学者语法学习成效平均分研究的3,886个样本计算出21个d值,又从始学年龄和语法学习成效相关性研究的1,431个样本计算出17个Zr值。结果表明:1)整体来看,二语学习越早,语法成效越好(d=.92, Zr=-.840);2)二语环境、限时和不限时条件下和听觉语法判断测试中,早学者具有明显优势,而在外语环境下和视觉语法判断测试中,早学者优势不明显。
Using meta-analysis, this paper explores the age effects of grammar attainment of second language and the impact of learning contexts, testing conditions and task modalities by synthesizing and analyzing the related empirical researches. 21 d values were got with a sample of 3,886 learners based on studies comparing the mean scores between early starters and late starters. And 17 Zr values were got with a sample of 1,431 learners based on studies of the correlation between age of onset and grammar attainment. Data analysis shows that: 1) overall, the earlier the learners learn a second language, the better their grammar attainment will be(d=.92, Zr=-.840); 2) early starters significantly outperform late starters in second language context, timed and untimed conditions and aural grammaticality judgment tests, but early starters do not show any advantage in foreign language context and visual grammaticality judgment tests.
Using meta-analysis, this paper explores the age effects of grammar attainment of second language and the impact of learning contexts, testing conditions and task modalities by synthesizing and analyzing the related empirical researches. 21 d values were got with a sample of 3,886 learners based on studies comparing the mean scores between early starters and late starters. And 17 Zr values were got with a sample of 1,431 learners based on studies of the correlation between age of onset and grammar attainment. Data analysis shows that: 1) overall, the earlier the learners learn a second language, the better their grammar attainment will be(d=.92, Zr=-.840); 2) early starters significantly outperform late starters in second language context, timed and untimed conditions and aural grammaticality judgment tests, but early starters do not show any advantage in foreign language context and visual grammaticality judgment tests.
引文
Abrahamsson,N.2012.Age of onset and nativelike L2ultimate attainment of morphosyntactic and phonetic intuition[J].Studies in Second Language Acquisition34(2):187-214.
Birdsong,D.&M.Molis.2001.On the evidence for maturational constraints in second-language acquisition[J].Journal of Memory and Language 44(2):235-249.
Cenoz,J.2002.Age differences in foreign language learning[J].ITL:International Journal of Applied Linguistics 135(1):125-142.
Cohen,J.1988.Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences(2nd Ed.)[M].Hillsdale,NJ:Erbaum.
DeKeyser,R.M.2000.The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition[J].Studies in Second Language Acquisition 22(4):499-533.
DeKeyser,R.M.,I.Alfi-Shabtay&D.Ravid.2010.Cross-linguistic evidence for the nature of age effects in second language acquisition[J].Applied Psycholinguistics 31(3):413-438.
Dwaik,R.&A.Shehadeh.2015.The starting age and ultimate attainment of English learning in the Palestinian context[J].English Language Teaching 8(10):91-99.
Flege J.E.,G.H.Yeni-Komshain&S.Liu.1999.Age constraints on second-language acquisition[J].Journal of Memory and Language 41(1):78-104.
Granena.G.2012.Age Differences and Cognitive Aptitudes for Implicit and Explicit Learning in Ultimate Second Language Attainment[D].Ph.D.dissertation.Maryland:University of Maryland.
Granena,G.&M.Long.2013a.Sensitive Periods,Language Aptitude,and Ultimate L2 Attainment[M].Amsterdam:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Granena,G.&M.Long.2013b.Age of onset,length of residence,language aptitude,and ultimate L2attainment in three linguistic domains[J].Second Language Research 29(3):311-343.
Huang,B.H.2014.The effects of age on second language grammar and speech production[J].Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 43(4):397-420.
Jia,G.X.1998.Beyond Brain Maturation:The Critical Period Hypothesis in Second Language Acquisition Revisited[D].Ph.D.dissertation.New York:New York University.
Johnson,J.S.1992.Critical period effects in second language acquisition:The effect of written versus auditory materials on the assessment of grammatical competence[J].Language Learning 42(2):217-248.
Johnson,J.S.&E.L.Newport.1989.Critical period effects in second language learning:The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language[J].Cognitive Psychology 21(1):60-99.
Johnson,J.S.&E.L.Newport.1991.Critical period effects on universal properties of language:The status of subjacency in the acquisition of a second language[J].Cognition 39(3):215-258.
Larson-Hall,J.2008.Weighing the benefits of studying a foreign language at a younger starting age in a minimal input situation[J].Second Language Research 24(1):35-63.
McDonald,J.L.2000.Grammaticality judgments in a second language:Influences of age of acquisition and native language[J].Applied Psycholinguistics 21(3):395-423.
Mc Donald,J.L.2006.Beyond the critical period:Processingbased explanations for poor grammaticality judgment performance by late second language learners[J].Journal of Memory and Language 55(3):381-401.
Mu?oz,C.2006.Age and the Rate of Foreign Language Learning[M].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Nunan,D.2002.The impact of English as a global language:Policy and planning in greater China.Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics 7(1):1-15,423.
Norris,J.M.&L.Ortega.2000.Effectiveness of L2instruction:A research synthesis and quantitative metaanalysis[J].Language Learning 50(3):417-528.
Patkowski,M.S.1980.The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language[J].Language Learning 30(2):449-472.
Pfenninger,S.E.2016.The literacy factor in the optimal age discussion:A five-year longitudinal study[J].International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 19(3):217-234.
Qureshi,M.A.2015.Age and Knowledge of Morphosyntax in English as an Additional Language:Grammatical J u d g m e n t a n d E r r o r C o r r e c t i o n[D].P h.D.dissertation.Arizona:Northern Arizona University.
Qureshi,M.A.2016.A meta-analysis:Age and second language grammar acquisition[J].System(60):147-160.
Seol,H.2005.The critical period in the acquisition of L2syntax:A partial replication of Johnson and Newport[J].Teacher College,Columbia University Working Papers in TESOL&Applied Linguistics 5(2):1-30.
蔡金亭,2012,元分析在二语研究中的应用[J],《外语教学与研究》(1):105-115。
刘文宇、高荣涛,2011,元认知策略培训对中国学生英语写作影响的元分析研究[J],《外语教学》(2):60-63。
秦学锋、杨东英,2013,系统评价软件RevMan在外语元分析研究中的运用[J],《河北联合大学学报》(4):132-138。
王丹、翟俊霞、牟振云等,2009,Meta分析中的异质性及其处理方法[J],《中国循证医学杂志》(10):1115-1118。
文秋芳,2010,《二语习得重点问题研究》[M]。北京:外语教学与研究出版社。
邢加新、罗少茜,2014,不同形式修正性反馈在中国大学生英语写作中的作用比较--一项基于国内研究的元分析[J],《中国外语教育》(4):78-86。
邢加新、罗少茜,2016,任务复杂度对中国英语学习者语言产出影响的元分析研究[J],《现代外语》(4):528-538。
Birdsong,D.&M.Molis.2001.On the evidence for maturational constraints in second-language acquisition[J].Journal of Memory and Language 44(2):235-249.
Cenoz,J.2002.Age differences in foreign language learning[J].ITL:International Journal of Applied Linguistics 135(1):125-142.
Cohen,J.1988.Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences(2nd Ed.)[M].Hillsdale,NJ:Erbaum.
DeKeyser,R.M.2000.The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition[J].Studies in Second Language Acquisition 22(4):499-533.
DeKeyser,R.M.,I.Alfi-Shabtay&D.Ravid.2010.Cross-linguistic evidence for the nature of age effects in second language acquisition[J].Applied Psycholinguistics 31(3):413-438.
Dwaik,R.&A.Shehadeh.2015.The starting age and ultimate attainment of English learning in the Palestinian context[J].English Language Teaching 8(10):91-99.
Flege J.E.,G.H.Yeni-Komshain&S.Liu.1999.Age constraints on second-language acquisition[J].Journal of Memory and Language 41(1):78-104.
Granena.G.2012.Age Differences and Cognitive Aptitudes for Implicit and Explicit Learning in Ultimate Second Language Attainment[D].Ph.D.dissertation.Maryland:University of Maryland.
Granena,G.&M.Long.2013a.Sensitive Periods,Language Aptitude,and Ultimate L2 Attainment[M].Amsterdam:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Granena,G.&M.Long.2013b.Age of onset,length of residence,language aptitude,and ultimate L2attainment in three linguistic domains[J].Second Language Research 29(3):311-343.
Huang,B.H.2014.The effects of age on second language grammar and speech production[J].Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 43(4):397-420.
Jia,G.X.1998.Beyond Brain Maturation:The Critical Period Hypothesis in Second Language Acquisition Revisited[D].Ph.D.dissertation.New York:New York University.
Johnson,J.S.1992.Critical period effects in second language acquisition:The effect of written versus auditory materials on the assessment of grammatical competence[J].Language Learning 42(2):217-248.
Johnson,J.S.&E.L.Newport.1989.Critical period effects in second language learning:The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language[J].Cognitive Psychology 21(1):60-99.
Johnson,J.S.&E.L.Newport.1991.Critical period effects on universal properties of language:The status of subjacency in the acquisition of a second language[J].Cognition 39(3):215-258.
Larson-Hall,J.2008.Weighing the benefits of studying a foreign language at a younger starting age in a minimal input situation[J].Second Language Research 24(1):35-63.
McDonald,J.L.2000.Grammaticality judgments in a second language:Influences of age of acquisition and native language[J].Applied Psycholinguistics 21(3):395-423.
Mc Donald,J.L.2006.Beyond the critical period:Processingbased explanations for poor grammaticality judgment performance by late second language learners[J].Journal of Memory and Language 55(3):381-401.
Mu?oz,C.2006.Age and the Rate of Foreign Language Learning[M].Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
Nunan,D.2002.The impact of English as a global language:Policy and planning in greater China.Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics 7(1):1-15,423.
Norris,J.M.&L.Ortega.2000.Effectiveness of L2instruction:A research synthesis and quantitative metaanalysis[J].Language Learning 50(3):417-528.
Patkowski,M.S.1980.The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language[J].Language Learning 30(2):449-472.
Pfenninger,S.E.2016.The literacy factor in the optimal age discussion:A five-year longitudinal study[J].International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 19(3):217-234.
Qureshi,M.A.2015.Age and Knowledge of Morphosyntax in English as an Additional Language:Grammatical J u d g m e n t a n d E r r o r C o r r e c t i o n[D].P h.D.dissertation.Arizona:Northern Arizona University.
Qureshi,M.A.2016.A meta-analysis:Age and second language grammar acquisition[J].System(60):147-160.
Seol,H.2005.The critical period in the acquisition of L2syntax:A partial replication of Johnson and Newport[J].Teacher College,Columbia University Working Papers in TESOL&Applied Linguistics 5(2):1-30.
蔡金亭,2012,元分析在二语研究中的应用[J],《外语教学与研究》(1):105-115。
刘文宇、高荣涛,2011,元认知策略培训对中国学生英语写作影响的元分析研究[J],《外语教学》(2):60-63。
秦学锋、杨东英,2013,系统评价软件RevMan在外语元分析研究中的运用[J],《河北联合大学学报》(4):132-138。
王丹、翟俊霞、牟振云等,2009,Meta分析中的异质性及其处理方法[J],《中国循证医学杂志》(10):1115-1118。
文秋芳,2010,《二语习得重点问题研究》[M]。北京:外语教学与研究出版社。
邢加新、罗少茜,2014,不同形式修正性反馈在中国大学生英语写作中的作用比较--一项基于国内研究的元分析[J],《中国外语教育》(4):78-86。
邢加新、罗少茜,2016,任务复杂度对中国英语学习者语言产出影响的元分析研究[J],《现代外语》(4):528-538。